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Sartre and Beauvoir: Existentialism in Action
While Heidegger retreated to his Black Forest hut, Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir developed existentialism as a philosophy of engagement with the world. Sartre's brilliance lay in applying phenomenology to ordinary human experiences. By the end of World War II, his ideas about radical freedom had made him a celebrity.
Sartre's novel Nausea (1938) featured Antoine Roquentin, a writer researching an 18th-century courtier in the seaside town of Bouville. Roquentin discovers he can't write the biography because life lacks the neat structure of adventure stories-it's merely contingent, causing him waves of nausea when confronting objects' raw existence. In the novel's pivotal scene, Roquentin stares at a chestnut tree's "boiled leather" surface and realizes what bothers him is the tree's sheer Being-its inexplicable, pointless "thisness." Only when listening to a jazz record does he find relief, as the music creates necessity where each note follows another with purpose.
Sartre's philosophical masterwork Being and Nothingness (1943) divided all being into two realms: the pour-soi ("for-itself")-human consciousness defined by its freedom-and the en-soi ("in-itself")-everything else that simply exists without decisions to make. Through cafe examples like looking for Pierre who isn't there or finding 1,300 francs in one's wallet when expecting 1,500, Sartre demonstrated that consciousness has no substance-it is merely an intentional reaching toward things. In his reversal of Descartes, "I am nothing, therefore I am free."
This radical freedom produces anxiety (angoisse) because we are nothing beyond what we decide to be. To avoid this anxiety, we engage in "bad faith" (mauvaise foi)-pretending we're not free through alarm clocks, social roles (like the waiter "playing at being a waiter"), or blaming external factors for our choices.
Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialist philosophy to women's experiences in her groundbreaking work The Second Sex (1949). Her central argument was that being female profoundly shapes one's existence in ways most people-including women themselves-failed to recognize. Beyond obvious legal inequalities, Beauvoir identified deeper existential differences. The book's famous assertion that "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman" introduced its analysis of how girls learn different ways of being-in-the-world from early childhood.
Beauvoir's most profound insight came from applying Hegel's master-slave dialectic to gender relations. The master perceives everything from his viewpoint, but bizarrely, so does the slave, who adopts his perspective even on herself. Women become "other" rather than transcendent subjects, constantly seeing themselves through the male gaze. This explains women's preoccupation with mirrors and why both sexes see women as the more sexual sex.
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Merleau-Ponty: The Body as Philosophy
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, though less celebrated than his contemporaries Sartre and Beauvoir, developed what many consider the most revolutionary philosophical approach of the existentialists. His masterwork The Phenomenology of Perception (1945) established him as an influential figure who uniquely bridged the gap between psychology and philosophy. Unlike Sartre, who found human limitations painful to accept and fought against them, Merleau-Ponty calmly recognized that we exist through constant compromise with the world, focusing his work on understanding how this essential compromise functions rather than resisting it.
Merleau-Ponty significantly expanded on Husserl's phenomenology by emphasizing that all experience comes through our sensitive, moving bodies. Even our most abstract thought processes rely on physical metaphors - we "grasp" concepts, "wrestle" with ideas, and "hold" beliefs. We rarely experience sensations in their "raw" form - phenomena come to us already shaped by interpretations and expectations based on our previous experiences. When we look at a chair, for instance, we don't first see brown patches and geometric shapes that we then decode into "chair" - we immediately perceive it as a meaningful whole, complete with its function and context. Similarly, when watching a soccer match, we don't see eleven individual players moving independently, but rather perceive the team as a unified entity with purpose and strategy.
His exploration of proprioception - our innate sense of where our body parts are positioned - revealed profound insights about embodied consciousness. Unlike external objects that we must actively locate, our body is immediately present to us: "I might have to hunt for my knitting needles but I don't hunt for my hands." This bodily awareness extends beyond our physical form to objects we use regularly, creating what he called an "extended body schema." A skilled driver feels the dimensions of their car as naturally as their own limbs; a tennis player's racket becomes an extension of their arm; "a woman maintains a safe distance between the feather in her hat and objects that might damage it; she senses where the feather is, just as we sense where our hand is."
For Merleau-Ponty, consciousness could never be the pure "nothingness" that Sartre described. Instead, he offered a more nuanced and beautiful metaphor: consciousness is like a "fold" in the fabric of the world - a crumpled hollow in cloth that maintains its form for a while before being smoothed away. This concept evolved into his later idea of the "chiasm" (from the Greek letter ), describing consciousness as an intricate intertwining with the world. Like crossed hands grasping each other or a knitting stitch holding fabric together, "the hold is held." We see things because we too can be seen; when I touch something, it touches me back. This reciprocal relationship extends to all our sensory experiences - we are both perceiving subjects and perceived objects, simultaneously affecting and being affected by the world around us.
Through these concepts, Merleau-Ponty developed a philosophy that recognized human consciousness not as separate from the physical world, but as deeply embedded within it, creating a more holistic understanding of human experience that continues to influence fields from cognitive science to artificial intelligence.
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Existentialism During War and Occupation
The existentialists' philosophies were forged in the crucible of World War II and the Nazi occupation of France. When Germany invaded France in May 1940, Sartre was captured and held as a prisoner of war, while Beauvoir remained in Paris under occupation. These experiences profoundly shaped their thinking about freedom, responsibility, and engagement.
Paris under occupation maintained an uncanny normalcy-except for Germans strolling everywhere, some arrogant, others embarrassed. Beauvoir resumed writing in cafes despite Nazi officers at nearby tables. She made compromises to survive: signing a document stating she wasn't Jewish or a Freemason to keep her teaching position, finding black-market food, and learning to salvage spoiled meat with vinegar and herbs. The collaborationist government's moralistic propaganda-exhorting respect for God, family, and traditional virtues-reminded her of the bourgeois talk she'd hated in childhood, but now backed by violence.
Meanwhile, Sartre was imprisoned at Stalag 12D in Trier, immersed in reading Heidegger's Being and Time. He found Heidegger's philosophy-born partly from Germany's 1918 humiliation-perfectly suited to France's 1940 defeat. While reading, he developed notes for his own philosophical treatise, which would become Being and Nothingness. Sartre escaped using his eye condition as pretext, securing a medical pass to visit an ophthalmologist outside the camp and simply walking out.
Upon his return to Paris, Sartre formed the Resistance group "Socialisme et liberte" with a dozen friends. The group primarily wrote manifestos and articles-dangerous enough activities. They faced a frightening moment when Jean Pouillon lost a briefcase containing incriminating pamphlets and their names and addresses, but it was fortuitously turned in to a lost-property office-an incongruity capturing the strange duality of Occupied life.
Sartre's play "The Flies," which opened on June 3, 1943, dramatized his ideas about freedom in the context of occupied France. Using the classical story of Orestes, Sartre portrayed a hero who returns to his hometown of Argos to find it ruled by the tyrant Aegisthus and plagued by flies representing the citizens' demoralization and shame. The parallels to the French situation under Nazi occupation were clear-the debilitating effects of compromise, the humiliation of living under tyranny, and the moral burden that came with resistance.
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The Cold War and Political Divisions
After liberation, existentialism exploded into public consciousness. Sartre's October 1945 lecture "Existentialism and Humanism" ended in mayhem and made headlines. The philosophy spread throughout Paris and beyond, with Gabriel Marcel noting that "hardly a day goes by without my being asked what is existentialism" by everyone from society ladies to ticket collectors.
However, the Cold War soon created painful divisions among the existentialists. With the Soviet Union's atomic bomb test in 1949 and the Korean War erupting in 1950, intellectuals were forced to take sides in the global ideological conflict. Camus maintained his stance against political violence, declaring in "Neither Victims Nor Executioners" that he rejected formal justifications for violence. When asked about his failure to support Algerian rebels, he famously said, "People are now planting bombs in the tramways of Algiers. My mother might be on one of those tramways. If that is justice, then I prefer my mother."
Sartre initially shared Camus's position but later shifted, deciding one must weigh lives in a judicious way, viewing Camus's position as evasive. After the bizarre "pigeon plot" of May 1952-when French Communist Party leader Jacques Duclos was arrested after police claimed two pigeons in his car were message carriers for Soviet masters-Sartre experienced what he called his "conversion." Writing frantically on Corydrane (an amphetamine), he produced "The Communists and Peace," a passionate defense of the Soviet state.
The final rupture with Camus came after Camus published The Rebel in 1951, presenting a theory of rebellion opposed to Marxist historical determinism. When Camus responded to a harsh review with a seventeen-page letter mocking critics who merely "turn their armchair in history's direction," Sartre wrote a blistering personal attack, declaring their friendship over.
Sartre upset another old friend in 1952 by publishing his first "Communists and Peace" article in Les Temps modernes without showing it to co-editor Merleau-Ponty, knowing he might object. Their disagreement exploded that summer in heated letters, with Merleau-Ponty declaring he would no longer issue hasty political responses to events, which Sartre saw as a retreat. The final break came when Sartre removed Merleau-Ponty's editorial disclaimer from a pro-Soviet piece without telling him.
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Global Impact and Legacy
Existentialism spread worldwide in the 1950s and 1960s, influencing life more profoundly than any other modern philosophy. It fed feminism, gay rights, class barrier dissolution, and anti-racist and anti-colonial struggles, fundamentally changing our existence. It also inspired personal liberation through existentialist psychotherapy, with practitioners like Medard Boss, Ludwig Binswanger, Rollo May, Irvin Yalom, R.D. Laing, and Viktor Frankl developing therapeutic approaches grounded in existentialist principles.
In America, existentialism resonated with post-war disillusionment with suburban conformity. A decade of "authenticity dramas" emerged across literature, theater and cinema-from Beat writers to films like "Rebel Without a Cause" and Godard's "A bout de souffle." Even lighter fare like "Funny Face" featured Audrey Hepburn performing an existentialist dance, while Sloan Wilson's "The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit" showed a war veteran rejecting corporate conformity for authentic living.
A new breed of existentialist rebels emerged in sociology, psychology, and philosophy. David Riesman's "The Lonely Crowd" examined modern alienation, followed by Irving Goffman's "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life," William Whyte's "Organization Man," and Paul Goodman's "Growing Up Absurd." Hannah Arendt's "Eichmann in Jerusalem" portrayed the Holocaust organizer as the ultimate conformist bureaucrat, exemplifying what she called "the banality of evil."
By the 1960s, existentialism was capturing students' imagination. Philosophy professor J. Glenn Gray noted in 1965 that students were increasingly fascinated by philosophers representing rebellion and authenticity. This popularized brand of existentialism fed into the growing counterculture, adding its terminology and transformative energy to student radicals, hippies, and anti-Vietnam War protesters.
Existentialism proved especially vital behind the Iron Curtain. In Czechoslovakia after the 1968 Soviet invasion, young Czechs and Slovaks devoured Sartre's works as if freshly published. Czech phenomenologist Jan Patocka, who had studied with both Husserl and Heidegger, spoke of the "solidarity of the shaken"-a bond uniting those whose lives had been jolted out of unthinking "everydayness" by historical upheaval. In 1976, the nearly seventy-year-old Patocka joined Vaclav Havel in signing Charter 77, a declaration of political opposition. Havel's famous 1978 essay "The Power of the Powerless," dedicated to Patocka, argued that in an oppressive state, dissidents must conduct an epoche-setting aside ideological cant to see what's truly before their eyes.
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The Existentialist Legacy Today
The existentialists have vanished, and the thrill they once inspired-like Iris Murdoch's exclamation about Sartre, "The excitement-I remember nothing like it"-is harder to recapture. Yet their ideas have become so embedded in modern culture we hardly recognize them as existentialist: anxiety, bad faith, authenticity, and the paradoxes of freedom permeate our discourse.
Freedom may prove the great puzzle of our early twenty-first century. While some freedoms have expanded as expected, the very concept has been radically challenged. We can no longer agree on what freedom means, what it's for, how much we need, or how much we're willing to surrender for convenience. Science increasingly tells us we're not truly free agents but collections of irrational, predictable responses veiled by the illusion of conscious control.
Heidegger's engagement with technology and ecology merits attention from contemporary readers. In his 1953 lecture "The Question Concerning Technology," he argued that technology isn't merely clever devices but reveals something fundamental about existence. The essence of technology is "nothing technological"-investigating it leads to deeper questions about how we work, occupy Earth, and relate to Being. Later Heideggerians like Hubert Dreyfus have analyzed the Internet as revealing technology's essence-its infinite connectivity promises to make everything available while removing privacy and depth, turning everything, including ourselves, into resources handed over to an impersonal "they."
The "imponderable bloom" of life-a phrase from E.M. Forster's prescient 1909 story "The Machine Stops"-lies at the heart of human mystery. This "bloom" of experience is precisely what phenomenologists and existentialists studied-the quality of experience as we live it, not as explained away by various philosophical frameworks. Of all these thinkers, Maurice Merleau-Ponty most directly tackled this bloom in The Phenomenology of Perception, describing how we live from moment to moment-from a woman ducking in a tall hat to a man watching a branch vibrate after a bird's departure.
Simone de Beauvoir shared Merleau-Ponty's instinct for human complexity, exploring how constraint and freedom shape our becoming. This theme guides The Second Sex, The Ethics of Ambiguity, and her multi-volume autobiography, where she chronicles herself, Sartre, and countless others thinking, acting, quarreling, and responding to their world. Her memoirs make her one of the twentieth century's greatest intellectual chroniclers and most diligent phenomenologists, observing experience, expressing astonishment at being alive, and indulging her appetite for everything encountered.
The existentialists offer no simple solution for modern problems. They were hopelessly flawed as individuals and philosophers, each harboring uncomfortable aspects in their thought, shaped by their dark, morally compromised century. Yet this is precisely why they demand rereading-they remind us of both human limitations and possibilities, constantly reviving questions about freedom and being that we try to forget. They capture both the fury of existentialist cafes and life's exquisite, phosphorescent bloom, "which reveals itself to human beings for as long as we are lucky enough to be able to experience it."
