What is *Age of Discovery* by Ian Goldin about?

*Age of Discovery* examines today’s rapid technological, economic, and social changes by comparing the modern era to the 15th-century Renaissance. Ian Goldin and Chris Kutarna highlight parallels in innovation, globalization, and upheaval, while addressing risks like inequality, cybersecurity, and political instability. The book argues that humanity must leverage creativity and cooperation to navigate these challenges and shape a prosperous future.

Who should read *Age of Discovery*?

This book is ideal for policymakers, business leaders, and readers interested in global trends, technological disruption, or historical parallels. It offers insights for those grappling with modern challenges like AI, climate change, and geopolitical shifts, providing frameworks to balance risks and opportunities in a turbulent world.

Is *Age of Discovery* worth reading?

Yes, particularly for its interdisciplinary analysis of today’s crises through a Renaissance lens. Goldin and Kutarna blend history, economics, and futurism to make complex trends accessible, though some may find the historical comparisons oversimplified. The book’s actionable advice on fostering resilience and innovation makes it valuable for strategic thinkers.

What is the “New Renaissance” concept in *Age of Discovery*?

The “New Renaissance” frames the 21st century as a period mirroring the 15th-century Renaissance, marked by breakthroughs in technology, science, and culture. Like the original era, today’s advancements (e.g., AI, gene editing) bring unprecedented opportunities but also existential risks, requiring deliberate stewardship to avoid chaos.

What are the main risks discussed in *Age of Discovery*?

Key risks include widening inequality, job displacement from automation, cybersecurity threats, pandemics, and political fragmentation. The authors warn that unchecked technological progress and globalization could exacerbate these issues without ethical governance and international cooperation.

What quotes summarize *Age of Discovery*’s themes?

- **“A Renaissance moment…forces humanity to give its best just when the stakes are highest”**: Emphasizes the urgency of proactive leadership. - **“Navigating the risks and rewards of our new Renaissance”**: Captures the book’s core thesis of balancing innovation with caution.

How does *Age of Discovery* apply to AI and climate change?

The book argues that AI and green tech could drive progress akin to Gutenberg’s press or Copernican theory but warns against misuse. It advocates for policies ensuring AI benefits society broadly and climate solutions that prioritize equity.

How does *Age of Discovery* compare to *Sapiens* or *The Fourth Industrial Revolution*?

While *Sapiens* explores human history broadly and *The Fourth Industrial Revolution* focuses on tech trends, *Age of Discovery* uniquely ties current disruptions to Renaissance-era patterns, offering a blended historical-futuristic lens for understanding global shifts.

A Era do Descobrimento

Navegando pelos Riscos e Recompensas do Nosso Novo Renascimento

Ian Goldin

3.99(445 Reviews)

Visão geral de A Era do Descobrimento

Em "Age of Discovery", Goldin e Kutarna comparam brilhantemente a era turbulenta de hoje ao Renascimento. Com a alfabetização global disparando e a expectativa de vida se estendendo por décadas, estamos testemunhando o segundo Renascimento da humanidade — ou caminhando para uma crise sem precedentes? A análise provocativa da Oxford Martin School desafia tudo.

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Capítulo 1

The Dawn of a New Renaissance: Navigating Our Age of Discovery

In the heart of Florence stands Michelangelo's David, frozen in that pivotal moment between decision and action. This masterpiece asks us a profound question that echoes through five centuries to our present day: If Michelangelo were reborn today, would he flounder or flourish? This question frames our current moment-a decisive historical inflection point where the choices we make will shape generations to come. We stand at a crossroads remarkably similar to the Renaissance that birthed David, with unprecedented global connectivity, technological advancement, and human development occurring alongside flourishing risks. The stakes couldn't be higher, and the potential rewards more magnificent. What makes this book particularly compelling is its cultural impact-it's been cited by world leaders at Davos, featured in Bill Gates' reading recommendations, and praised by economists and historians alike for its fresh perspective on our current age. The comparison between our time and the Renaissance isn't just academic-it's a framework that helps us understand the extraordinary nature of our present moment and the responsibility that comes with it.

Capítulo 2

Mapping Our Transformed World

The world has been fundamentally redrawn in our lifetime, just as it was during the Renaissance when explorers like Columbus and Magellan redefined humanity's understanding of physical space. Five hundred years ago, Europe's worldview came primarily from religious texts-a 6,000-year-old Earth with Jerusalem at its center. Medieval maps like the Hereford Mappa Mundi depicted a world bounded by biblical stories and mythological creatures. By 1500, this picture had dramatically changed as Portuguese explorers like Bartolomeu Dias rounded Africa's southern tip, Columbus stumbled upon the Americas, and Magellan's expedition circumnavigated the globe, providing definitive proof of Earth's true size and shape. This age of exploration revolutionized not just geography, but commerce, science, and human consciousness itself. Our modern transformation mirrors this earlier revolution, but with ideological rather than oceanic frontiers. Thirty years ago, humanity faced a world divided by the Iron Curtain into competing systems: capitalist versus communist, with the remaining "Third World" caught between. Cities like Berlin, Vienna, and Seoul were physically split, families separated, and entire continents aligned with opposing camps. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, and China's economic opening under Deng Xiaoping created a new global reality. Within a decade, 4 billion more people joined the global market economy, and the number of democracies increased from one-third to three-fifths of UN member states. Countries like Poland, the Czech Republic, and the Baltic nations transformed from command economies to vibrant market democracies. This political-economic transformation has been matched by a communications revolution comparable to Gutenberg's printing press. Just as Gutenberg's innovation combined existing technologies-metal type, oil-based ink, paper, and the wine press-to create something revolutionary, our digital revolution has transformed how information flows. The first intercontinental fiber-optic cable, TAT-8, was laid across the Atlantic in 1988; now a dense global network of over 400 submarine cables connects over 3 billion people. Mobile adoption has been even faster, with penetration exceeding 90% in developing nations like Kenya, where M-Pesa mobile payments transformed the economy. Together, humanity now creates 44 zettabytes of data annually-enough to fill smartphones stacked two-thirds of the way to the moon. The economic impacts have been equally profound. Digital technology has fundamentally transformed communication economics-a call from New York to London that cost $300 in 1930 is now essentially free, cloud storage that would have cost $15 trillion in 1995 is now free to Google's billion users, and data flows have exploded globally, reaching 5.5 terabits per second on major routes. Like the printing press before it, digital media has standardized communication through platforms like YouTube and TikTok, democratized public speech by eliminating distribution costs through social media, and transformed education from rote information delivery to teaching critical information retrieval and analysis. Universities now focus less on memorization and more on developing digital literacy and analytical thinking skills essential for navigating our information-rich world.

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Capítulo 3

The New Global Entanglement

Our world isn't merely connected-it's entangled in ways that make simple connections seem quaint by comparison. Trade, once dominated by wealthy nations, has exploded and diversified. Between 1990 and 2014, traded goods jumped from one-seventh to one-quarter of global GDP, with total value increasing 500% to $19 trillion. The geographic distribution has shifted dramatically-in 1990, 60% of global trade occurred between rich countries, with developing nations trading among themselves accounting for just 6%. Now these shares approach equality. Container port rankings reflect this transformation: in 1990, all top 10 ports were in developed economies; by 2014, 14 of the top 25 were in developing nations, with China alone claiming 7 of the top 10. Shanghai, now the world's busiest port, wasn't even in the top 25 in 1990. The simple mercantilist model where developed economies exploited cheap labor and resources is obsolete. Emerging economies now compete globally for capital, customers, and talent. Financial connections have similarly transformed. Cross-border financial flows experienced explosive growth, jumping from $1 trillion to over $12 trillion annually between 1990-2007. Though the 2007-2008 crisis reduced this activity, approximately $4.5 trillion in debt and equity still moves across borders each year. Western Europe has forged deeper links with emerging markets across Africa, the Middle East, Russia, Eastern Europe and Asia, while direct investment channels have opened between emerging economies. Human movement patterns have also transformed. International tourist arrivals tripled from 440 million in 1990 to 1.4 billion by 2014. Air passenger trips have grown sixfold to over 3.2 billion, with international flights now outnumbering domestic ones. The passenger demographic has shifted dramatically: once dominated by North Americans and Europeans, today's air travelers are equally distributed among North Americans, Europeans and Asians. Perhaps most significantly, humanity passed a historic milestone in 2008-for the first time ever, a majority of humans lived in cities. While mega-cities grab headlines, the real growth story is happening in the 700+ developing-world cities exceeding 500,000 people today. China led this transformation-in just one generation, nearly half a billion people relocated to cities, with places like Shenzhen exploding from a fishing village of 10,000 in the 1970s to 10-15 million today.

Capítulo 4

The New Human Potential

The Renaissance birthed the concept of human progress-a philosophical shift from seeing humanity as occupying a fixed position in the Great Chain of Being to determining our own destiny. This revolutionary idea found expression in Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's 1486 "Oration on the Dignity of Man," often called the "manifesto for the Renaissance." It shares kinship with Leonardo da Vinci's iconic "Vitruvian Man," which places humanity between the heavenly circle and earthly square, signaling our capacity to realize divine potential within our natural form. Today, we're witnessing an unprecedented flourishing of human potential across health, wealth, and education. Life expectancy, perhaps the most comprehensive measure of human health, has risen by almost twenty years globally since 1960-from 52 to 71-a gain that took the previous millennium to achieve. These gains have been genuinely global, with life expectancy rising by 6-7 years across most regions since 1990. Economic gains have been equally impressive, particularly among the poor. Between 1990 and 2014, real per capita incomes rose in 146 of 166 countries. Global extreme poverty fell from 43% (2 billion people) when the Berlin Wall fell to about 12% (900 million) by 2015-the first time in history poverty has declined while population grew. China's economic miracle lifted 500 million people out of poverty through 30+ years of 8% annual growth. India has nearly halved its extreme poverty rate since 1990. Education has transformed from a luxury to a necessity, both reflecting and catalyzing development. Global illiteracy has fallen from 44% in 1980 to just one-sixth now, adding three billion literate brains to humanity. Elementary school enrollment has reached 91% in developing countries, gender gaps are rapidly closing, and higher education enrollment has more than doubled since 1990 to over 33%. For the first time in history, more women attend university than men worldwide. These improvements stem from multiple factors. We are winning the battle against disease-since 1990, deaths of children under five from infectious diseases have been halved from 13 million to 5.9 million through vaccination, safer water, education, and behavioral changes. Economic connections have directly improved human well-being by creating jobs, raising incomes, and promoting competition. Migration offers immense benefits, with remittances to developing countries totaling over half a trillion dollars in 2016-three and a half times more than all foreign aid.

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Capítulo 5

Flourishing Genius in a New Renaissance

Our age is experiencing Copernicus-scale paradigm shifts comparable to the Renaissance. In science, these shifts are clearest because important leaps are more decisive than in other fields. The life sciences are undergoing a fundamental transformation-for 5,000 years, medicine has taken the human body as a given, focusing on treatment through drugs, surgery and education. Now, instead of merely treating within nature's constraints, scientists aim to transform our bodies to transcend these limits entirely. Genetics has transformed from a scattered field of fewer than 100 university labs into thousands of interconnected research centers spanning public and private sectors globally. Technical innovations revolutionized DNA sequencing-from requiring 30,000 person-years to sequence a genome to just six hours by 2015, with costs plummeting faster than Moore's Law. This shift enabled a new research model: instead of targeted hypothesis-driven sequencing, scientists could sequence entire genomes and search for patterns. Physical sciences are experiencing equally profound transformations. We've pursued miniaturization because smaller means cheaper, more energy-efficient, and faster. For 50 years, Moore's Law has driven computing power through increasingly smaller transistors-from thumb-sized vacuum tubes to billions fitting on a fingernail today. But we're approaching fundamental physical limits as transistors reach 10-30 nanometers, where quantum mechanics takes over. This has spurred revolutionary approaches like quantum computing, which exploits electrons' ability to exist in superposition-allowing exponential processing power growth. Progress has been rapid: from factoring 15 into 3x5 in 2001 to 56,153 in 2014. Commercial development is accelerating with D-Wave's 512-qubit computer solving problems 3,000 times faster than classical supercomputers, while IBM and Intel have launched major quantum initiatives. Nanoscale engineering represents another frontier. Unlike the futurists' dreams of nanobots building anything atom by atom, real nanoscale engineering faces formidable challenges from random molecular motion and quantum stickiness. Despite these obstacles, nanoscience has exploded, with publications growing from 230 in 1990 to over 11,000 by 2015, creating a trillion-dollar market. Practical applications already include antimicrobial silver nanoparticles in everyday products, gecko-inspired adhesives, and the remarkable graphene-a one-atom-thick carbon sheet combining diamond's strength with extraordinary electrical conductivity.

Capítulo 6

The Power of Collective Genius

Individual geniuses may capture headlines, but they represent just the visible tip of a massive iceberg of human potential. The real story is the expansion of talents across entire populations. While collective genius brings originality by breaking through prevailing thought, collective effort contributes scale-building wonders and solving problems beyond any individual's capacity. From the construction of ancient pyramids to modern space exploration, humanity's greatest achievements have always been collaborative endeavors. Our new Renaissance has created digital "cathedrals" that dwarf their physical predecessors in both scale and impact. Wikipedia, with its 55 million articles in 300 languages, and open-source software like Linux and Apache have been built collaboratively by tens of thousands worldwide, becoming dominant in their domains. Wikipedia has not only replaced print encyclopedias but has fundamentally changed how knowledge is created and shared. Apache powers over 60% of internet servers, while Linux runs 96.3% of the world's top million servers. Like Renaissance libraries, platforms such as Facebook, with its 2.9 billion users, and YouTube, uploading 500 hours of content every minute, chronicle humanity through mass participation. Scientific data analysis presents another frontier for collective effort, where the sheer volume of information exceeds traditional processing capabilities. As CERN's Large Hadron Collider generates a gigabyte per second, DNA sequencing produces 1-2 gigabytes per second, and NASA's Earth observing systems collect 150 gigabytes per second, "citizen science" platforms have become crucial. Zooniverse, with 1.1 million volunteers, has enabled dozens of groundbreaking projects. Galaxy Zoo's 100,000 volunteers classified 900,000 galaxies in months rather than years, producing 44 scientific papers and discovering new astronomical phenomena like "green pea" galaxies and light echoes around quasars. Three conditions have made our age particularly fertile ground for collective genius. First, the velocity, variety and richness of idea flows have increased dramatically through new exchanges between civilizations, trade networks, social mobility, and urbanization. Digital platforms enable instantaneous global collaboration, while international research partnerships connect minds across continents. Second, a growing population of well-educated minds has created the foundation for breakthroughs, with global literacy rates reaching historic highs and university enrollment surpassing 220 million worldwide. Third, competitive landscapes have created strong incentives for innovation, with governments, corporations, and foundations funding military advances, commercial solutions, and artistic achievements. The rise of venture capital, research grants, and crowdfunding has democratized access to resources for creative endeavors. These collaborative achievements demonstrate that innovation isn't just about individual brilliance but about creating environments where collective intelligence can flourish. From citizen science to open-source software, the power of many minds working together continues to push the boundaries of human achievement.

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Capítulo 7

The Dark Side of Our New Renaissance

The same forces that enable genius to flourish also magnify systemic risks that are difficult to detect until they shock us collectively. These "butterfly defects" arise from two conditions that characterize our age: complexity and concentration. Like a house of cards, our interconnected systems become both more efficient and more fragile, where small disruptions can cascade into global catastrophes. Disease exemplifies these risks with frightening clarity. The twenty-first century has already witnessed several pandemic threats, demonstrating our rising vulnerability in an interconnected world. SARS was the first dramatic proof of these fast-moving threats to global health security. Emerging in November 2002 in Guangdong, China, the virus reached every continent except Antarctica within four months-the fastest viral propagation in human history. Its spread was facilitated by air travel, urban density, and delayed public health responses, exposing critical weaknesses in our global health infrastructure. Ebola became "the epidemic that did" when it reached West African cities for the first time, transforming from a rural disease to an urban nightmare. By mid-2015, after 28,000 reported cases and over 11,300 deaths, the human toll became twenty times higher than all previous outbreaks combined. The virus exposed not just medical vulnerabilities but social and economic fragilities in affected regions. H5N1 (bird flu) represents an even more worrying pandemic threat, with its alarming characteristics: it's becoming more pathogenic, surviving longer, and infecting an expanding range of animals. With a human mortality rate exceeding 60% and the potential to spread easily like common flu, H5N1 lacks only a reliable human-to-human transmission mechanism. Scientists warn that such adaptation could occur through natural mutation or laboratory manipulation. Financial systems demonstrate similar vulnerabilities, but with economic rather than biological contagion. The 2007-2008 financial crisis echoed Renaissance lessons as American and European bankers engaged in a lucrative cycle-lending to consumers and homebuyers, moving debts off their books through securitization and derivatives, then lending again-until households were drowning in debt and financial institutions held hundreds of billions in bad loans. The consequences were devastating: $4.1 trillion in global losses by 2009, 50 million jobs lost worldwide, a quarter-billion more pushed into working poverty, and an estimated 30,000-50,000 African children dying from starvation due to the economic downturn. The crisis revealed how financial innovation, while creating wealth, had also created hidden systemic risks that regulators failed to anticipate or control. Infrastructure forms another critical vulnerability, with aging systems struggling to support growing populations and economic demands. The World Economic Forum estimates global infrastructure needs at $100 trillion over the next 20 years, highlighting the massive scale of the challenge. In America, the Civil Engineers give current infrastructure a D+ grade, requiring $3.6 trillion by 2020 just for basic repairs. This includes deteriorating bridges, outdated power grids, and aging water systems. Developing nations face even more urgent challenges, needing to double their $800-900 billion annual infrastructure spending by 2020 to support rapid urbanization and economic growth. The concentration of population in megacities makes infrastructure failures potentially catastrophic, affecting millions simultaneously. These interconnected risks demonstrate how our Renaissance-like period of innovation and growth also creates new vulnerabilities that require unprecedented coordination and foresight to manage effectively.

Capítulo 8

The Challenge of Social Cohesion

In an age of rapid change and pervasive anxiety, extremism finds exceptionally fertile ground. Just as Renaissance Florence saw the rise of Savonarola's radical movement, our modern era empowers new prophets of doom who leverage technology to amplify their messages with unprecedented reach and sophistication. The Islamic State's extraordinary recruitment of 30,000 foreigners from over 100 countries demonstrates how social media algorithms, targeted propaganda, and digital networks can rapidly mobilize disaffected populations across geographical and cultural boundaries. Today's extremism isn't simply rooted in ignorance or rejection of modernity, but in fundamentally competing visions of what modernity should mean and how society should progress. Both moderates and extremists believe in humanity's capacity for improvement, but their paths diverge sharply. Moderates measure progress through widely recognized secular achievements - economic growth, technological advancement, improved healthcare - compatible with diverse values and beliefs. Extremists, however, define improvement through specific religious or moral frameworks that reject compromise, viewing plurality itself as a form of corruption. The bonfires of extremism are fueled by broken promises and deep societal disillusionment. Syria provides a stark example, where 40% of the population is under 24, and youth unemployment reached a devastating 48% before civil war erupted in 2011. Similar patterns emerge globally - from Europe's alienated immigrant communities to America's rust belt towns. When moderate society fails to deliver opportunity, dignity, and a sense of belonging, extremist alternatives gain powerful traction by offering simple explanations and decisive solutions to complex problems. Renaissance moments fundamentally strain the social bargain holding society together. The transformative forces reshaping society - whether technological, economic, or cultural - create both magnificent possibilities and terrifying threats, but these experiences aren't uniform across populations. There are dramatic winners and losers, creating new concentrations of prosperity and poverty that challenge basic notions of fairness and justice. Meanwhile, increasing systemic complexity blurs lines of accountability, making it harder for citizens to identify who's responsible for their circumstances. Today's global protests echo the Renaissance era in their breadth, frequency, and technological enablement. Just as Savonarola's followers utilized the revolutionary printing press to spread their message, modern protesters coordinate through sophisticated social media platforms, encrypted messaging apps, and digital payment systems. More significantly, public anger has evolved from targeting specific corrupt leaders to rejecting entire systems and institutions - a pattern that mirrors the historical shift from Savonarola's localized bonfire of vanities to Luther's sweeping Reformation that challenged the fundamental structure of religious authority. This systemic rejection reflects a deeper crisis of legitimacy in modern institutions, from governments and corporations to traditional media and educational establishments.

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Capítulo 9

Navigating Our New Renaissance

Michelangelo's David has endured numerous trials over 500 years-lightning strikes, physical damage, improper cleaning, weathering, and wartime protection-yet remains an enduring symbol of human potential. Through his presence, David invites us to draw wisdom from the Renaissance period that created him. To magnify flourishing genius, we must first welcome it by championing critical thinking in an age where digitization has amplified all speech equally. We must embrace geniuses from all backgrounds-Nobel Prize distribution reveals what we're missing: only a tiny fraction of laureates come from Africa, Latin America, and Asia, regions representing 85% of global population. We need bold public patronage for fundamental research, with at least 3% annual growth in state research funding and over one-third supporting high-risk original work. We must dare to fail, heeding Michelangelo's wisdom that greater danger lies in aiming too low rather than falling short of high aims. The first courageous act is taking a long-term, big-picture view despite media bias toward negative news. From this perspective, we should set out on voyages of discovery with uncertain destinations. Wise governments should incentivize citizens to seize opportunities through policy reforms-shifting the tax base upward with progressive taxation, strengthening social safety nets, and rebalancing intellectual property protections. Finding your Florence-a creative crossroads-remains essential. Despite our digital connectivity, physical place matters more than ever for two critical reasons: craft and concentration. Deep craft-the tacit knowledge that separates the merely competent from masters-remains stubbornly local. Meanwhile, creative resources increasingly concentrate in major cities, which now house half of humanity and generate over 80% of global economic activity. To mitigate flourishing risk, we must make new maps that better reflect our complex world, admit the risks we face, and stoke virtues like honesty, audacity, and dignity. Renaissance humanists challenged medieval notions of humanity's fixed place by embracing our capacity for self-shaping through virtue. Virtue-the quality to act as one should despite difficulty-is learned through practice, not teaching, and becomes endemic to places and communities. The present age is a New Renaissance-a contest between flourishing genius and risk. How history records it depends on all of us. Renaissance luminaries like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci recognized their era as a clash of creative and destructive forces that would reshape humanity. They understood that recognizing this contest brought with it the urgent responsibility to join it. That truth is once again upon us.

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Temas principais em A Era do Descobrimento

renaissance parallels
global connectivity
technological inflection points
systemic risk management
digital transformation impact

Citações de A Era do Descobrimento

The stakes couldn't be higher, and the potential rewards more magnificent.
Our world isn't merely connected-it's entangled.
The simple mercantilist model...is obsolete.
Emerging economies now compete globally for capital, customers, and talent.
We're witnessing an unprecedented flourishing of human potential.

Personagens de A Era do Descobrimento

Ian GoldinAuthor and expert on global development
MichelangeloRenaissance artist used as a framing figure
Christopher ColumbusExplorer who redefined physical space
Johannes GutenbergInventor of the printing press
Deng XiaopingLeader who oversaw China's economic opening

Sobre o Autor

Ian Goldin, Professor de Globalização e Desenvolvimento na Universidade de Oxford e autor do best-seller Age of Discovery, é uma autoridade de destaque em crises globais, mudanças tecnológicas e evolução social.

Seu livro, que examina os desafios modernos através da lente dos períodos históricos de renascimento, baseia-se em suas décadas de experiência como ex-vice-presidente do Banco Mundial, conselheiro de Nelson Mandela e diretor fundador da Oxford Martin School — o principal centro de pesquisa interdisciplinar do mundo.

Autor prolífico de 25 livros, incluindo Terra Incognita: 100 Maps to Survive the Next 100 Years e The Shortest History of Migration, Goldin combina rigor acadêmico com experiência real na formulação de políticas. Suas três séries de documentários da BBC, incluindo The Pandemic That Changed the World, amplificam sua pesquisa para públicos globais.

Condecorado pela França por suas contribuições ao desenvolvimento, o trabalho de Goldin é frequentemente apresentado no Financial Times, que nomeou seu lançamento de 2023, Age of the City, como um de seus melhores livros do ano.

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A Era do Descobrimento

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Um livro. Muitas maneiras de ouvi-lo.

The Dawn of a New Renaissance: Navigating Our Age of Discovery

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1,000,000+ curious minds.

1,000,000+ curious minds.

Um livro. Muitas maneiras de ouvi-lo.

The Dawn of a New Renaissance: Navigating Our Age of Discovery

Mapping Our Transformed World

Veja cada palavra enquanto a ouve

The New Global Entanglement

The New Human Potential

Aproveite ainda mais A Era do Descobrimento

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Veja cada palavra enquanto a ouve

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