第 1 章
Transforming Innovation: The Perpetual Advantage
When Behnam Tabrizi sat down for dinner with Hans Vestberg, then CEO of Ericsson (now CEO of Verizon), he didn't expect the conversation would launch him on a years-long quest to decode the DNA of perpetual innovation. Vestberg had sent executives to Stanford specifically to learn from Silicon Valley's most innovative companies-a move that sparked Tabrizi's curiosity about what truly separates consistently innovative organizations from the rest. Despite his impressive credentials, including authoring bestsellers like "Rapid Transformation" and advising over a hundred companies on major changes, Tabrizi realized he was missing something crucial: how organizations can sustain innovation perpetually rather than treating it as a one-time event.
This book, endorsed by luminaries from Apple, eBay, Dropbox, Tesla, and Harvard Business School as "required reading in boardrooms and classrooms," distills insights from a comprehensive study of twenty-six innovative companies worldwide, including surveys of nearly 7,000 global executives, academics, and consumers. The framework draws heavily from Amazon, Apple, Tesla, Microsoft, and Starbucks-companies that have significantly outperformed the S&P 500 over twenty years. But this isn't about blindly copying ultra-successful companies; it's about helping any organization improve its agility and innovation capabilities, even if just by 10-20%. The result is a practical playbook for transformation that combines purpose, agility, leadership, and radical collaboration into a comprehensive approach for sustainable innovation.
第 2 章
The Innovation Challenge: Why Most Companies Fail
Many leaders treat perpetual innovation as a myth, believing large organizations inevitably become places "where talent goes to die," as Elon Musk once observed. Nokia's dramatic fall illustrates this problem perfectly-despite dominating the mobile phone market, they failed to adapt when Apple entered in 2007. Nokia's CEO famously lamented, "We didn't do anything wrong, but somehow, we lost." Their laser focus on operational metrics without cultural transformation or courageous innovation led to their downfall.
Transforming large companies isn't impossible, but it's certainly difficult. Many Silicon Valley evangelists push for decentralized organizational utopias, yet command-and-control structures persist. True transformation requires more than inspirational CEO speeches-it demands a holistic approach that instills discipline while generating emotional energy to thrive during disruption. Leaders must set aside personal agendas and transform for a larger purpose.
Nike's 1977 "Principles" memo exemplifies this approach, emphasizing that "our business is change" and "we're on offense all the time." Emotions like passion, energy, obsession, and ambition were crucial to Apple's success under Steve Jobs, whose transformed leadership after his exile helped turn Apple into the world's most valuable company. Building innovative organizations requires not just rational thinking but deep emotional commitment to sustain through difficult beginnings.
Through extensive research involving thousands of global executives, academics, and consumers, Tabrizi identified eight critical drivers of perpetual innovation: existentialism (commitment to meaningful purpose), customer obsession, the Pygmalion effect (leaders influencing organizational culture), start-up mindset, managing tempo, working bimodally, moving boldly, and radical collaboration. These elements require deep emotional commitment rather than just rational directives, enabling companies to overcome human tendencies toward complacency and risk aversion.
第 3 章
Existential Purpose: The Soul of Innovation
Microsoft was stuck in 2014, losing ground to younger tech firms despite profitable legacy products. Its market cap had stagnated since 2001, with a "too big to fail" mentality preventing innovation. When Satya Nadella became CEO, he transformed the company by "rediscovering the soul of Microsoft"-shifting from "a PC on every desk running Microsoft software" to "empowering every person and organization on the planet to achieve more." This elevated vision made Microsoft's offerings vehicles for improvement rather than just products to sell, unlocking new innovation avenues and quintupling Microsoft's value to nearly $2 trillion in eight years.
Perpetual innovation requires positive motivation sustained by a spirit of generosity. Large organizations often become victims of their own success, protecting existing structures rather than embracing change. Purpose alone isn't enough-companies need an existential commitment that provides deeper direction. Drawing from philosophical traditions of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Sartre, and psychologists like Frankl who emphasized finding meaning to overcome adversity, companies need a deep-seated conviction to summon the energy for effective innovation.
This existential purpose must be significant enough to motivate progress at scale while serving a realistic business model. Companies like Apple aim to make powerful technology accessible to improve lives, while Amazon overcomes retail trade-offs through maximum convenience. An existential vision is a conceptual ideal or North Star, while existential goals are concrete objectives describing the path to that vision.
Haier transformed from a failing state-owned refrigerator factory into the world's largest appliance brand through five strategic stages, each with evolving goals but anchored by a consistent vision of premium, innovative products. Beginning with a dramatic sledgehammer ceremony smashing defective units, Zhang Ruimin established a zero-defect quality culture that differentiated Haier in China's emerging market.
Tesla rocketed to become the world's most valuable car company in just twenty years through its vision of "accelerating the world's transition to sustainable energy," which guided its strategic evolution from luxury vehicles to mass-market cars and energy solutions. Apple's vision of "making tools for the mind that advance humankind" led Steve Jobs to focus on user experience rather than technical specifications, believing "people with passion can change the world."
An existential vision only works when internalized by employees as a personal calling, creating alignment between individual satisfaction and organizational success. Santa Clara Valley Medical Center demonstrated this by engaging cross-functional teams to develop their vision: "To build a world-class patient flow process that patients and families love and makes staff proud." Despite a 70% drop in public funding, the hospital achieved significant improvements: fewer ambulances turned away, shorter patient stays, faster discharges, and 30% more patients admitted.
第 4 章
Customer Obsession: The External Tug
Existential purpose and customer obsession work together to drive perpetual innovation. Haier exemplifies true customer obsession by going beyond normal attention to customers-soliciting feedback from 800,000 users before creating prototypes, posting products on crowdfunding sites to gather pre-production feedback, and operating on a "zero-distance" principle where any customer can reach a Haier employee whenever needed. This obsession is embedded in their "Rendanheyi" philosophy (Ren = employees, Dan = customer needs, Heyi = integration), connecting employees directly with customers both culturally and structurally.
Customer obsession provides the crucial external motivation that complements an organization's internal existential purpose. As Bezos points out, customers will never be satisfied-they constantly want better prices, higher quality, and more features. This persistent external pressure prevents the complacency and internal politics that often accompany success. True customer obsession goes beyond basic awareness-it's an emotional commitment tied to existential purpose that forces companies to accommodate, listen to, and attune themselves to customers' challenges.
This obsession manifests in two ways: cocreation (obtaining customer input at every production stage) or empathetic imagination (anticipating what could improve customers' future lives). Zara exemplifies cocreation through its founder Amancio Ortega's philosophy of producing "along the lines of what's happening; if the market wants this, let's do it." Rather than relying on celebrity designers, Zara focuses on what everyday customers are wearing. Ortega famously spotted a young man in a badge-covered denim jacket at a traffic light, called his design chief immediately, and had similar jackets in stores within two weeks.
While Zara relies on cocreation, Apple exemplifies empathetic imagination. Steve Jobs famously said, "People don't know what they want until you show it to them. That's why I never rely on market research." Rather than asking customers what they wanted, Jobs and his team built powerful machines and then worked backward from the customer's perspective: How can this help my life? What would I want to do with this? Does this give me power I can easily learn to use?
Customer obsession extends beyond the product to the entire experience. Tesla, like Apple, employs empathetic imagination to develop sophisticated technology while making the customer experience remarkably simple. In Tesla showrooms, the focus isn't on explaining the technological feats behind their electric vehicles but on helping customers obtain innovative products that work seamlessly in their lives.
Amazon masterfully blends cocreation with empathetic imagination while maintaining customer obsession at massive scale. Its approach focuses on selection, convenience, and low prices, with constant experimentation. Amazon's obsession drives continuous innovation even when successful-introducing Prime in 2005 when the company was already thriving, developing custom server chips when existing ones weren't meeting customer needs, and acquiring companies like Whole Foods to enhance customer experience.
For customer obsession to succeed, it must permeate the entire organization, not just executive thinking. Customer-obsessed companies excel at preventing problems before customers even notice them. Amazon proactively upgrades shipping when orders face delays, then investigates the root cause to prevent future issues-all invisible to customers. This "silent customer service" requires significant investment in technical infrastructure and operational liberality, but creates exceptional experiences that build lasting loyalty.
第 5 章
The Pygmalion Effect: Sculpting Organizational Culture
Named after the ancient sculptor who created his ideal woman from ivory, the Pygmalion effect describes how exceptional leaders like Steve Jobs shape their organizations through deep commitment and attention to detail. Despite his notoriously difficult personality, Jobs created a culture of innovative design by focusing intensely on recruiting exceptional talent. His conviction that having "more amazing talent than I knew what to do with" would be "heaven" inspired his team to prioritize hiring outstanding people.
As companies grow beyond personal interactions, leaders face the challenge of instilling innovation-driving values throughout the organization. The most effective leaders not only embody innovation values themselves but weave these attributes into their company's DNA, allowing their influence to permeate the entire organization despite its size.
For innovation-focused leaders, recruiting exceptional talent becomes an obsession. Steve Jobs called it his most important job, while Jeff Bezos declared hiring standards "the single most important element" of Amazon's success. Elon Musk personally approved every Tesla hire until the company reached 12,000 employees-even janitors and cafeteria workers. When AMD faced bankruptcy in 2014, new CEO Lisa Su prioritized attracting top talent by selling the experience as a chance to "learn a ton and make a big impact."
While many companies assess "cultural fit" based on personal compatibility, innovative leaders define it around specific values that drive performance. At Tesla, Musk directed HR to hire only "champions in their field" who could thrive under intense pressure and refuse to accept impossibility. This clear definition allowed recruiters to identify candidates with both raw ability and the stamina to overcome difficult problems.
Jobs learned that experts must lead experts to foster innovation. After his experience with John Sculley, who "destroyed everything I'd spent ten years working for," Apple structured leadership around domain expertise rather than general management. Jobs believed world-class talent wants to work with other experts in their field, and that "it's easier to train an expert to manage well than to train a manager to be an expert."
Even diverse, talented individuals need to feel they belong to collaborate effectively. AMD exemplifies this balance, ranking among the most diverse companies globally while fostering collaboration. The company actively recruits women engineers and those from underrepresented groups, with metrics for inclusion built into its overall strategy.
Pygmalion companies maintain their culture through rigorous performance expectations. At Tesla, hundreds of employees were fired for subpar performance in 2017, sending a clear message: thrive or be fired. Amazon similarly tracks fulfillment center workers continuously, with three warnings before termination for underperformance. Managers and HR actively coach struggling employees but maintain high standards.
Paradoxically, giving employees autonomy increases their embrace of organizational culture. Haier Group's transformation into microenterprises exemplifies this approach-self-managed teams responsible for their own profit and loss, with freedom to make business decisions. Rather than prescribing action plans, Haier provides a platform for entrepreneurship, managing through internal targets while trusting employees to maximize creativity.
Traditional performance reviews often undermine the Pygmalion effect by focusing employees on impressing managers rather than actual performance. Pygmalion companies instead favor immediate, continuous feedback over annual reviews. Tesla maintains annual reviews as a formality but emphasizes real-time recognition: "If people kick ass, tell them right away. And tell them in front of people."
第 6 章
The Start-Up Mindset: Maintaining Day One Energy
When companies grow successful, they often lose the nimble, passionate energy that fueled their initial growth. IBM's transformation in the mid-1990s illustrates how a start-up mindset can revitalize even the most entrenched organizations. David Grossman, discovering Sun Microsystems had created a rogue Olympics site using IBM's data feed, took initiative far beyond his role. Rather than just getting the site shut down, he and ally John Patrick launched a grassroots movement to transform IBM's approach to the internet.
The start-up mindset parallels Joseph Campbell's "hero's journey" archetype-ordinary people called to a higher purpose who meet mentors, face challenges, make allies, and ultimately transform both themselves and their world. Companies need a critical mass of such "heroes" who embrace existential commitment and overcome corporate strictures to meet great challenges.
Established companies typically operate in what Jeff Bezos calls "Day 2"-when a business model is proven and focus shifts to execution at scale. This mindset breeds behaviors that make companies vulnerable to disruption: internal focus, bureaucratic decision-making, investment in entrenched capabilities, fear of failure, siloed structures, preference for large interdependent teams, and short-term value prioritization.
Reawakening a Day 1 mindset begins with stories that remind employees of their company's tentative beginnings. Founders like Amancio Ortega of Zara draw motivation from formative experiences-like witnessing his mother being denied credit for groceries as a child, which drove his entrepreneurial determination. Similarly, Jeff Bezos credits his grit to watching his teenage mother and Cuban immigrant stepfather overcome obstacles.
Beyond grit, perpetual innovators need people who feel ownership of the company's trajectory and believe in its noble purpose. Bezos distinguishes between "missionaries" who love their products and customers versus "mercenaries" just trying to flip their stock. Steve Jobs emphasized building Apple and Next "from the heart," stressing that someone must be "the keeper and reiterator of the vision" to maintain purpose through countless decisions.
Companies can pivot back to Day 1 by embracing the lean start-up loop of build, measure, and learn. This approach allows teams to develop minimum viable products, test market reactions, and iterate quickly. The process works best with tight budgets that force autonomy and creativity. Steve Jobs advocated for simplicity-"Sometimes you need to subtract"-which requires courage when intuition suggests scaling hierarchy to match growing impact.
Bezos advocates using "heart and intuition as well as empirical data" when making big decisions, acknowledging that good decision-making requires both instinct and risk-taking. This approach empowers teams to make decentralized decisions rather than waiting for hierarchical approval. At Zara, salespeople have authority typically reserved for buyers in other retailers, keeping the organization responsive by placing decision power with those closest to customers.
Corporate leaders who rise through disciplined pursuit of specific strategies often struggle to adapt to today's unstable markets. Companies need leaders with a "beginner's mind" who can approach challenges without preconceived categories or solutions. Children naturally possess this quality, seeing possibilities without learned limitations.
The start-up mentality of founders like Bezos and Ortega becomes contagious through their visible commitment and charisma. However, this mindset doesn't require C-suite leadership-IBM embraced the internet faster than Apple or Microsoft thanks to two mid-level employees. Companies can foster intrapreneurship, allowing employees to build exciting projects within the security of established organizations.
第 7 章
Managing Tempo: The Lion's Strategy
Business success requires more than just speed-it demands mastery of tempo, the ability to control the pace of activity. While constantly moving fast isn't sustainable, innovative companies cultivate high-tempo cultures with the flexibility to accelerate when opportunities arise and deliberately slow down when complexity demands it. As Bob Sutton notes, perpetual speed creates confusion and mistakes; the key is knowing when to pause.
Lions provide a perfect metaphor for organizational tempo. During hunts, lionesses begin with patient stalking, carefully planning their approach before explosively sprinting at fifty miles per hour to catch prey. Similarly, agile companies must master two distinct tempos: deliberate planning followed by decisive action. This mirrors Jeff Bezos's distinction between "type-one" decisions (high-stakes, low reversibility requiring careful deliberation) and "type-two" decisions (highly reversible, requiring quick action with limited data).
Agile organizations must master the art of sprinting-concentrated bursts of activity that overcome cautiousness and force quick development of minimum viable products. Like soccer star Lionel Messi, who walks more than other players while studying the field before explosive bursts of speed, companies must conserve energy while staying alert for the right moment to accelerate.
Beyond simply alternating between fast and slow, organizations must follow several tempo rules: Stay alert-individuals need rest, but organizations must constantly watch for opportunities; Stay paranoid-like Intel's Andrew Grove demonstrated, maintaining healthy suspicion prevents the complacency that success breeds; Look broadly-successful organizations, like lions scanning their environment, maintain wide vision rather than narrow focus.
Virginia's basketball team demonstrated how to regain control of tempo after failure-they maintained their methodical pace but added flexibility and regular playmaking to prevent complacency, ultimately winning the national championship. Flexibility is crucial for controlling tempo in business too. Zara changes over a third of its store inventory weekly and replenishes stock every three days, allowing quick adaptation to customer preferences.
Successful organizations, like championship basketball teams, allocate resources disproportionately to their stars. Virginia's championship team gave their three star players 83% of available playing time, while other players averaged under ten minutes per game. Similarly, businesses should focus resources on their best-performing products and people rather than supporting everything equally.
Controlling tempo requires rapid adjustment based on trust among key participants-best accomplished by building talent internally. Just as Virginia's championship stars had developed together for seasons, companies benefit from vertical integration that makes suppliers and distributors colleagues rather than contractors.
Innovative companies establish semi-predictable structures while allowing for rapid changes when needed. One approach is "heartbeats, not handcuffs"-keeping pace with external developments without restricting flexibility. Amazon maintains flexibility through its constantly shifting S-team of about twenty executives, unlike traditional fixed C-suites that create fiefdoms.
Organizational structure significantly impacts tempo control. Regardless of specific form, perpetually innovative companies eliminate barriers that slow adjustments. Microsoft's Satya Nadella reduced hierarchies and freed engineers from institutional controls that had left them feeling like they merely executed processes and attended contentious meetings. Netflix empowers employees with unusual freedom to sign contracts and charge expenses without bureaucratic approval, maintaining this even during cost-cutting periods.
第 8 章
The Bimodal Approach: Different Strategies for Different Challenges
Perpetually innovative organizations operate in two distinct modes rather than at a single static tempo. SpaceX exemplifies this approach-while famous for bold innovations like reusable rockets, much of the company simultaneously works on incremental gains that progressively lower costs without compromising reliability. Their greatest achievement isn't just the breakthroughs but running an operation that combines revolutionary advances with evolutionary improvements.
This bimodal approach divides organizational activities into those requiring compression (standardization and efficiency for predictable operations) versus those needing experiential development (learning and discovery for unpredictable areas). While many companies superficially cut costs in operations while boosting innovation budgets, true bimodal operation isn't simply dividing continuing operations from product development-it's about applying the right approach to each activity based on its strategic importance and level of uncertainty.
Compression applies engineering techniques like critical path method, PERT, reengineering, and concurrent engineering to accelerate efficiencies in predictable operations. It works for any predictable operation regardless of complexity, requiring aggressive identification of improvement opportunities and disciplined pursuit. Companies simplify steps, delegate more to suppliers, and encourage overlapping development to rationalize processes and reduce cost and time.
For unpredictable innovation paths, companies must use experiential development with multiple options and frequent testing. This approach builds knowledge while navigating uncertainty, resembling basketball's fast break rather than football's planned offense. Multiple options give developers intuitive feel for how design parameters work in reality. Apple used this approach with the original iPhone, creating competing teams (one based on Mac, one on iPod technology) that eventually merged their strengths.
Frequent testing accelerates development through small, quick failures mixed with successes. Facebook excels here, running thousands of versions simultaneously, allowing engineers to test new features without risking the entire platform. Constant feedback helps them learn and improve in real time, leading to monetizable engagement.
Experiential development requires discipline to avoid common pitfalls. "Planningitis" occurs when companies overplan in uncertain environments-our research found most next-generation product development failures stem from the "fuzzy front end" when companies struggle to define expectations without hampering creativity.
Two fundamental rules apply across experiential development projects. First, use multifunctional teams that extend beyond R&D to include engineering, manufacturing, marketing, purchasing and accounting. These diverse perspectives reveal more opportunities, generate creative ideas, identify flaws faster, and build better prototypes. While "skunkworks" seem appealing, our research shows breakthrough products more likely come from autonomous multi-functional teams within the hierarchy than from isolated skunkworks.
Don't reward teams for meeting schedules. Schedule-focused incentives lead developers to neglect valuable outcomes that are hard to predict, like quality or new features. They design for schedule rather than specifications, cutting corners and making poor trade-offs that ultimately delay projects and damage morale. Instead, reward for broader outcomes including market performance and learning from experimentation.
第 9 章
Going Bold: The Courage to Transform
Amazon's development of AWS exemplifies the power of boldness. Rather than seeking outside solutions to server reliability problems, Amazon decided to build its own cloud computing service-a risky venture far outside its core retail business. This bold move transformed the company, creating a highly profitable new division that eventually produced its future CEO. Similar boldness led to the Kindle e-reader and Alexa/Echo, establishing Amazon's multi-industry dominance.
Boldness delivers two major strategic benefits: sustainable competitive advantage through focused innovation that competitors struggle to match, and attraction of high-level talent who want to work on world-changing innovations. The positive feedback loop of boldness, when executed with other key elements, creates compounding advantages.
Perpetual innovators must act courageously beyond being generous and ferocious. A tepid approach fails to harness the emotional energy that comes from boldness. Elon Musk exemplifies this strategy at Tesla, SpaceX and other ventures-targeting daunting problems whose solutions yield high market returns. While risky, success becomes the ultimate differentiator, catapulting companies past competition and impressing investors.
While startups naturally embrace boldness, established successful companies struggle with it. Large organizations develop structures focused on reliability rather than innovation, and even founders often prefer current stability over the risks they faced earlier. Most successful companies eventually lapse into conformity-either by mimicking competitors or digitally replicating physical products without meaningful improvements.
While we often associate boldness with heroic individual leaders like Elon Musk, truly innovative organizations embed boldness at every level. Leaders must start by articulating their great dream, knowing themselves deeply-their strengths, weaknesses, and non-negotiable values-and then authentically embodying boldness both inwardly and outwardly. This example catalyzes energy in others throughout the organization.
Leaders who want to move boldly while minimizing risk should seek information broadly beyond their usual circles. Even with extensive data, making bold moves requires subjective judgment and the mental capability to synthesize meaningful insights while imagining new possibilities. The fear of failure that paralyzes many executives often stems from perfectionism and fear of humiliation. To overcome this, leaders must build courage by focusing on the present, visualizing courageous acts, and explicitly stating their desire to overcome fears.
True boldness sometimes means having the courage to slow down or scale back when necessary. When quality standards slip during rapid growth, pulling back can be crucial for long-term success, even if it temporarily disappoints customers. When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997, he boldly scaled back the company's product offerings, eliminating even profitable items to focus on creating groundbreaking innovations.
Boldness is most noticeable in its absence. When failing companies lack ambition to remake their marketplace, they often blame external factors rather than their own timidity. Blockbuster's collapse exemplifies this-former CFO Tom Casey blamed market conditions rather than strategic failures like declining to acquire Netflix. While Blockbuster delivered the same product for a decade, Netflix transformed itself multiple times, developing digital by-mail, streaming, and original content.
第 10 章
Radical Collaboration: Breaking Down Silos
Collaboration harnesses the "wisdom of crowds"-the principle that groups with diverse perspectives can be smarter than even expert individuals. British statistician Francis Galton discovered this in 1906 when the average of 787 county fair guesses about an ox's weight proved more accurate than any individual estimate. This collective intelligence works because individual errors cancel out, improving everything from medical diagnoses to economic forecasts-but only when diverse viewpoints are included.
Despite its obvious benefits, genuine collaboration rarely happens beyond formally established teams. The culprit? Organizational silos. When companies are small, everyone collaborates naturally for survival. But success brings growth and complexity, turning each function into its own world with diminishing connections to others. Leaders build mini-fiefdoms for security, and multidivisional structures make cross-functional work difficult.
Collaborative organizations can take many forms. Haier operates through thousands of decentralized microenterprises focused on specific products and markets, while Apple maintains a highly centralized, functional structure. Both achieve impressive collaboration despite their structural differences. At Haier, microenterprises collaborate out of necessity to gain expertise in relevant technologies. When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997, he dismantled the siloed business units and replaced them with functional hierarchies. This structure concentrates subject matter expertise in specific areas, enabling greater insights than if each product group had its own specialists.
Amazon employs a conventional organizational structure but overlays it with collaborative work teams that drive innovation. Their famous "two-pizza teams" (no larger than what two pizzas can feed) include diverse skills from different departments, focusing on customers rather than organizational turf. Small size encourages ownership and quick pivoting, while interdependence motivates teams to solve problems efficiently.
Structure and performance measures aren't enough to ensure collaboration-companies need people naturally inclined to work together. Jack Altman, CEO of Lattice, distinguishes between employees "with batteries included" who create energy for those around them and those "with batteries not included" who drain energy from others. This distinction matters because collaboration requires enormous energy, positive thinking, and courage.
Structure isn't enough, nor is energy: Radical collaboration requires bravery to approach unknown colleagues, especially outside the organization. Microsoft demonstrated this shift under Satya Nadella in 2015, moving from an inward focus to a "partner-positive" strategy. Nadella dramatically used an iPhone at a Salesforce event to demonstrate Microsoft software on iOS, signaling the company's existential shift to help customers access its products regardless of platform.
Encouraging organizational openness isn't automatic. Employees naturally work within ordinary parameters, rarely thinking beyond immediate colleagues. The surest way to kill collaboration is through internal competition-Microsoft's previous policy of mandatory negative performance reviews discouraged teamwork by making colleagues competitors.
Radical collaboration matters most at the head of an organization. Nadella discovered his inherited senior team operated in successful but isolated silos, with meetings focused on criticizing each other's ideas rather than building solutions. To create a "center of gravity" for collaboration, he assembled a new senior team with complementary skills and collaborative mindsets.
Even highly successful companies often resist deep collaboration-to their detriment. Myspace, once the internet's biggest website by traffic until 2006, declined because its functional divisions created silos that separated customer-focused groups from technical implementation teams. Without policies forcing interaction, teams with user experience insights rarely communicated with those responsible for building features.
