第1章
The Moral Revolution You Never Knew You Needed
In a world that celebrates altruism as the pinnacle of virtue, Peter Schwartz's "In Defense of Selfishness" delivers a provocative counterargument that has made waves across philosophical and political circles. The book challenges our most fundamental assumptions about what it means to be good. While most of us have been raised to believe that self-sacrifice represents the height of morality, Schwartz asks: what if this widely accepted premise is fundamentally flawed? This radical reframing of ethics has garnered attention from libertarian thinkers and Objectivists worldwide, with the book becoming required reading in many philosophy courses examining Ayn Rand's intellectual legacy. Though controversial, its arguments have influenced entrepreneurs like Peter Thiel and sparked heated debates about the proper foundation of a moral society. Whether you find its premises liberating or troubling, Schwartz's challenge to conventional morality offers an intellectual journey that few readers forget.
第2章
Altruism: The Shackles of Servitude
Altruism isn't about simple generosity or kindness-it's about subordination. It demands that you place others' interests above your own, requiring you to sacrifice your wealth, goals, and interests whenever someone else has a need. This isn't freely given charity; it's the payment of an unchosen moral debt you supposedly owe to others simply because they exist.
Under altruism, "need" takes on a perverse meaning: only what requires someone else's sacrifice qualifies. If your needs can be satisfied through your own efforts, they're dismissed as mere desires. The dentist who refuses to treat an HIV-positive patient isn't asking for sacrifice-he wants to be left alone to practice according to his judgment. But the patient demands his skills on unacceptable terms. Similarly, students seeking degrees they haven't earned and blind passengers demanding emergency exit seats are deemed to have "needs," while competent students and safety-conscious passengers merely have "selfish desires."
This creates a society divided into two classes: those with needs and those required to fulfill them. The less deserving the recipient, the more obligated you are to help them. This explains why the parents of a murdered girl would "love" their daughter's killer "from the bottom of their hearts." Altruism demands concern not with your own values, but with the needs of others-even your enemies.
Though many Americans pursue wealth rather than emulating Mother Teresa, they still accept altruism's judgment that self-interest is ignoble. Even billionaires like Bill Gates take more pride in philanthropy than in creating valuable products. The wealthy members of "Responsible Wealth" actively campaign against estate tax repeal, arguing that money should go to the needy rather than heirs.
People may break altruism's commandments, but they do so with guilt rather than confidence. When government officials take money from some to provide subsidies for countless programs, citizens tolerate it because altruism has taught them that money earned by one individual ought to be spent on another's needs. Altruism pervades our culture, establishing a relationship where the needy command and the able obey. It demands servitude-that you become the property of others.
第3章
The Straw Man of Selfishness
What image comes to mind when thinking of selfishness? Most people envision a brainless brute who rapes and pillages, or a con man who cheats widows and orphans-an amoral miscreant who lies, steals and kills to satisfy his desires. Yet "selfishness" simply means concern with one's own interests. The altruist ethics has gained widespread acceptance because the alternative-selfishness-has been deliberately misrepresented as evil.
Altruism's advocates entrench Attila the Hun as the paradigm of selfishness, equating self-interest with destroying others. Dictionaries reinforce this distortion, defining "selfish" as acting "at the expense of others." This false dichotomy suggests our only choices are sacrificing ourselves to others (altruism) or sacrificing others to ourselves. Since the end of Classical Greece, selfishness has been portrayed as the behavior of an impulsive fiend who tramples others.
But what constitutes genuine self-interest? Not merely fulfilling whatever desires arise-drug addicts, alcoholics and criminals demonstrate that doing whatever we fancy often harms us. Life has objective requirements independent of our wishes. Ayn Rand identified the fundamental course of action human life depends on: rationality. Unlike animals with survival instincts, humans must think to live. Our self-interest is achieved not by blindly following desires but by rationally determining which values truly benefit us.
The truly selfish person deals with others through persuasion and trade, not force and theft. A predator like Attila is contemptible not for pursuing self-interest, but for wrongly believing plunder serves his interests. Howard Roark from Rand's "The Fountainhead" exemplifies true selfishness-refusing to compromise his architectural vision despite poverty and rejection, maintaining his integrity rather than surrendering his ideals for immediate gain.
Contrary to altruist propaganda, selfishness doesn't require indifference to others. Our self-interest encompasses both material and spiritual values, including genuine friendships and romantic relationships. We choose relationships with people who are important to us-not out of charity but because they embody values we treasure. True love isn't selfless charity; it's an intensely personal, selfish choice that brings exquisite joy.
Altruists have also distorted the concept of "sacrifice," which properly means giving up something of value for something of lesser or no value. Yet today, the term is misapplied to describe rational trade-offs like forgoing short-term pleasures for long-term gains. This conceptual confusion leaves people vulnerable to altruism's demands, as they're offered the false alternative of either living parasitically or being parasitized upon.
第4章
The Selfish Need for Moral Principles
Altruism does more than condemn selfishness-it severs egoism from ethics entirely. Altruists claim selfishness requires no moral guidance, insisting that principles like honesty, justice and integrity are definable only through self-sacrifice. They present morality as synonymous with altruism, making non-altruistic moral principles inconceivable. Yet in reality, egoism makes moral principles absolutely necessary.
Since life has specific requirements governed by the Law of Identity (A is A), "do anything you wish" isn't a formula for success. Reality imposes demands we must acknowledge to live successfully. Life isn't just about the present moment-it spans our entire existence. Acting in our self-interest means considering the total consequences of our actions across our lifetime, not just immediate gratification. We must integrate today with all our tomorrows without contradiction. We need a policy of long-term adherence to reality-a commitment to not rationalizing, distorting, or evading facts. This unconditional acceptance of truth is what proper moral principles provide us.
Contrary to common belief that moral and practical concerns clash, this dichotomy stems from altruism, which defines self-interest as evil. In rational egoism, both morality and practicality rest on the same standard: man's life as a rational being. Thinking in principles requires taking the widest perspective-looking at the total context rather than isolated snapshots. The principled person integrates narrow facts into explanatory generalizations, grasping the broader fundamentals of human values.
Under egoism, the good is determined by what objectively sustains human life. If you experience an irrational desire, you should reject it as an act of self-interest. But altruism demands you accommodate your neighbor's irrational desires-saying no would be selfish. You have no right to refuse a panhandler seeking drug money or judge what others "need." Contemporary law enforces this principle: obese aerobics instructors can't be rejected by health clubs, doctors with addiction histories can't be questioned about their pasts, and the corpulent receive preferential treatment in government contracts.
A system that converts wishes into entitlements makes conflict inevitable. Under egoism, there are no masters or servants-just one principle: each person's life is an end in itself. Those who live by this code enjoy harmony of interests. They don't seek the unearned or demand sacrifices. The principles of selfishness foster genuine goodwill in society. When gain doesn't come at another's expense, people can view each other as potential values, not potential leeches.
第5章
The Myth of the "Public Interest"
Self-sacrifice directly contradicts self-interest. Proponents of altruism obscure this by promoting the vague notion of "public interest" to make altruism seem practical, suggesting we all benefit from sacrifices made for the public good. But this effectiveness depends on not examining the concept too closely.
The distinction between "public" and "private" interests is fundamentally unclear. Why is a city park considered in the public interest while a shopping center isn't? If numbers matter, private enterprises like Disney World (45 million visitors) far outserve public ones like Yellowstone (3 million). The critical difference isn't the number or economic status of beneficiaries, but how they benefit: alms versus trade.
"Public interest" projects are inherently non-commercial. Users don't bear the full costs; instead, these are shouldered by non-users through taxation. While in self-interested transactions each person pays for what they value, under the public-interest standard, people are compelled to finance what others value. The link between payer and beneficiary is broken-some sacrifice without benefit while others benefit without paying.
Altruists disdain trade because they interpret need as a lack remedied only through another's sacrifice. Commercial transactions, regardless of their mutual benefit, aren't seen as meeting "real needs." If people leave Walmart with merchandise, they've merely traded money for goods; if they leave a public library with books, their "needs" are being met because they receive without directly paying.
By opposing trade and individual choice, the public-interest standard creates services people would reject in a free market. Connecticut Public Television exemplifies this, boasting about providing service without requiring payment-essentially admitting its programming lacks sufficient market value. While commercial broadcasters must deliver content audiences value to survive, public broadcasting is subsidized by taxpayers who wouldn't voluntarily support it, yet it's praised as serving the "public interest."
The collectivist premise underlying programs like Social Security is that there are no individual workers, only interchangeable cells serving the social organism. The system prohibits individual choice because it's built on the premise that the collective knows better than you what's in your true interest. As the Washington Post argues, allowing voluntary participation would lead people to make choices they'd "regret."
This collectivist mentality permeates education through Progressive theories that prioritize "socialization" over knowledge acquisition. John Dewey, Progressive education's founder, proclaimed that schools should focus on "social activities" rather than academic subjects, training children to "conceive of himself from the standpoint of the welfare of the group." The goal is to develop "a spirit of social cooperation" by "saturating him with the spirit of service."
But rational thought is indeed selfish and individual-there is no collective thinking any more than collective breathing. Knowledge must be acquired by individual minds before it can be shared. The individual, not society, is primary.
第6章
Individual Rights: The Antithesis of Altruism
In Western society, we value freedom and recognize that individuals have rights-a realm where they remain autonomous from government intrusion. However, the altruist code fundamentally contradicts this view.
Altruism makes freedom impossible because it defines humans as servants to others with only duties, not rights. As altruism's founder Auguste Comte declared, his philosophy "only recognizes duties, duties of all to all" and "cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such a notion rests on individualism."
While some conservatives try reconciling freedom with self-sacrifice, claiming you have the political right to choose how to fulfill your moral obligation to others, this contradicts altruism's foundation. Under altruism, your life fundamentally belongs to others, not you. Just as religion demands service to God with divine punishment for disobedience, altruism demands service to society with legal punishment for noncompliance.
Rights are moral principles defining freedom of action in a social context. The most fundamental right is to life itself, which means the freedom to engage in self-generated, self-sustaining action according to one's judgment. This includes property rights, as life requires the ability to acquire and use the material results of one's efforts.
Rights can only be violated through physical force or fraud, which disable the victim's mind by compelling action against their judgment. A free society categorically bars initiated force while permitting retaliatory force against rights-violators.
Rights are to actions, not objects. You have the right to pursue medical care, not to compel treatment; the right to seek employment, not to demand a job; the right to speak, not to force others to provide an audience. Rights are individual, not collective-there can be no "collective rights" that supersede individual sovereignty.
Throughout history, most social systems have subordinated individuals to the collective, but capitalism stands alone in rejecting servitude and consistently upholding individual rights. Under capitalism, your life belongs exclusively to you, as does your property, with individual rights treated as absolute and inviolable.
Altruists accuse capitalism of creating inequality while claiming socialism achieves true equality. But this argument is specious. Capitalism actually achieves the only meaningful equality: equality of rights. Under capitalism, no legally privileged elite exists-the law applies equally to all citizens regardless of wealth or status.
What altruists actually seek isn't equality of rights but equality of condition-particularly material wealth. This goal stems from collectivist premises that assume wealth belongs to society rather than individuals who create it. It treats humans as interchangeable cells rather than sovereign individuals.
第7章
The Collectivist Straitjacket
Fundamentally, there are two antithetical approaches to government based on one's view of man. The individualist approach sees humans as rational and productive, asking what political system allows them to sustain their lives. The collectivist approach views humans as ineffectual and needy, asking what system allows them to be taken care of by society. The first leads to freedom; the second to the welfare state.
When people are deemed incapable of self-sufficiency and must be taken care of by the state, they inevitably lose the freedom to make their own decisions. The paternalistic mentality of politicians leads to edicts against gambling, smoking, riding motorcycles without helmets, and buying liquor on Sundays. Government programs like Social Security, the Postal Service, and public education don't just provide services but prohibit alternatives. The premise is that humans, like children choosing ice cream over broccoli, cannot be trusted to make rational decisions.
While people understand that censorship harms both publishers and readers, many mistakenly believe economic regulations only restrict businesses while helping consumers. In reality, both parties are victimized. A free market represents uncoerced choices between consenting adults, where each party judges the exchange improves their life. Government intervention prevents both producers and consumers from obtaining what each believes would further their interests.
Profit-seeking is the public's best assurance of safe products. Companies maximize income not by selling dangerous products but by offering genuine value that satisfies customers and builds reputation. A free market rewards businesses whose products perform as advertised and punishes those that don't. When companies allow shoddy products, the problem isn't excessive greed but insufficient greed-they lack commitment to making money through reputation-guarding.
In the welfare-regulatory state, the individual is insignificant-merely a means to society's ends. Like farm animals maintained for their products, citizens are valued only as cogs in the social machinery. The FDA exemplifies this collectivist mentality by evaluating drugs based on their effect on the "population as a whole" rather than on individuals who might benefit. Cancer drugs like Iressa and Avastin were withdrawn despite helping certain patients because they didn't benefit the "collective."
Collectivism requires cultivating dependency. People must be convinced they cannot manage their lives through their own judgment and actions. The ubiquitous admonition to "give something back" exemplifies this mindset. When successful people donate to charity, they frame it as repayment of a debt to society. But what debt? If you achieve success in a free society, you've worked for it through trade-giving value for value. You owe no unpaid debt to some amorphous community.
第8章
The Black Hole of Selflessness
Contrary to common belief, the truly selfless person sacrifices not just material assets but intellectual ones as well. Altruism demands the sacrifice of the mind itself.
Every act of evaluation-identifying something as valuable-is fundamentally an act of cognition. It involves recognizing that something relates positively to your life. When you sacrifice a value under altruism, you're surrendering the cognitive conclusion that something is good for you. Altruism seeks to dictate not just what's good, but what's true.
When government agencies like the FDA exercise monopoly power to approve or reject drugs, they establish by political fiat what counts as medical fact. A drug might actually benefit you, but if deemed detrimental to the collective, you must act as though it's harmful to you. This control extends to ideas themselves, as pharmaceutical companies face restrictions not just on selling unapproved drugs but even on sharing medical literature contradicting the FDA's position.
Altruism demands we adapt our perception of reality to accommodate others' needs, even rejecting obvious truths if they might offend. Guards can't wear stab-proof vests because it signals to prisoners they're dangerous; schools can't teach about the Holocaust if it might upset certain students. The fully selfless person harbors no personal convictions-their standard of truth becomes whatever others believe.
Selflessness pervades totalitarian systems at all levels. Nazi soldiers and commanders alike embraced this mentality-one soldier admitted feeling compassion for concentration camp prisoners but "had to overcome it" as "the sacrifice I had to make for the greater cause." Rudolf Hoess, Auschwitz commandant, claimed he "could not allow myself to form an opinion" about the mass extermination he oversaw. These people achieve near-complete selflessness by refusing to activate their minds. They suspend comprehension, blank out reality, and engage in no independent judgment. Instead, they allow their minds to be molded by authority figures-becoming "zombies" who commit atrocities while telling themselves they have no right to question orders.
第9章
The Destructive Goal of Self-Sacrifice
Altruism's proponents range from innocent believers to those who grasp the full implications of the creed. While some naively think sacrifice benefits society, the intellectual leaders of altruism advocate self-sacrifice as an end in itself. Their ultimate goal isn't for recipients to gain, but for donors to lose.
The zealous advocates of altruism are driven by envy-they don't seek success for themselves but failure for others. This explains why high school community service requirements forbid students from being paid or hiring others to perform the service, even if that would better help recipients. The measure of virtue is the student's willingness to sacrifice, not the actual help provided. Similarly, profit-seeking corporations that have reduced suffering through antibiotics or hunger through genetically modified crops are scorned, while Mother Teresa is praised. Altruists approve of sacrifice in proportion to the loss suffered, not the gain created.
Altruism fails to provide a genuine conception of good. While other ethical codes identify specific values (religious commandments or rational self-interest), altruism defines good only as benefiting someone other than yourself. This creates an infinite regression: your neighbor's good is whatever benefits his neighbor, and so on. The only meaning left is the act of self-sacrifice itself. Since sacrifice means giving up something of value for something of lesser value, altruism essentially declares that harming yourself is good.
Altruism ultimately harms both those who sacrifice and those who receive the sacrifices. It upholds parasitism by declaring that mooching is moral while self-reliance is venal. But nature requires productiveness-someone must create the goods on which life depends. The code of self-sacrifice destroys producers by removing their incentive to generate goods when they're told "from each according to ability, to each according to need." More fundamentally, altruism drains the lifeblood from dependents by teaching them that sustaining their lives isn't their responsibility. It encourages passivity rather than self-generated action, urging people to have others live for them.
第10章
Choosing Life: The Path of Rational Selfishness
Why must we choose between complete selfishness and complete altruism? Why not take a middle road through the shades of gray? Because in matters of principle, compromise is self-destructive. If someone proposed a law banning government criticism, the proper response isn't finding middle ground by allowing some censorship. That concedes the entire principle. In ethics, "gray" denotes moral self-contradiction. While a code of self-sacrifice cannot be practiced consistently, a code of self-interest can and must. Living requires unfailing rationality-every lapse endangers that pursuit.
There is no escaping this either/or choice. Either we have a right to our own existence or we don't. When we oscillate between egoism and altruism, we undermine our own accomplishments. The altruist sees only immediate facts-you have food while others don't-without considering how that food came to exist through production and individual effort. Altruism takes a short-sighted approach appropriate for animals, while egoism adopts the broad, conceptual approach appropriate for humans. Egoism sees man as efficacious and self-responsible, viewing the world as harmonious with human aspirations, where happiness is achievable and rational individuals' interests don't conflict.
If you want an existence of meaning rather than accepting the ruinous platitudes of altruistic service, challenge traditional dogmas. Don't be deterred by inevitable smears. Be clear on your concepts: don't describe beneficial values as sacrifice, don't label the irrational as selfish, don't confuse love with self-sacrifice, and don't equate benevolence with altruism. Above all, don't appease altruism's apostles by justifying your actions as benefiting society. Your life is an end in itself. Don't apologize for being selfish-be proud that you refuse to surrender the inestimable value of your life and the inviolate purpose of your happiness.
