第 4 章
A New Model: Understanding Corporate-Stakeholder Relations
The stakeholder model presented in this book views corporate-stakeholder relationships as evolving, mutually defined, and governed by implicit and explicit contracts that specify expectations and contributions. These relationships provide the energy, information, and resources necessary for survival, creating social, intellectual, environmental, and financial capital essential to sustainability and growth.
Corporations function as a nexus of contracts that specify what organizations expect from stakeholder groups and what stakeholders expect in return. These contracts can be explicit (legally enforceable) or implicit (self-enforcing relational contracts where obligations cannot be precisely specified). Companies may maintain multiple contracts with a single stakeholder group, with implicit contracts relying heavily on reputation and trustworthiness.
Our understanding of corporate-stakeholder relations has evolved from static models to more dynamic frameworks. The traditional input-output model treated corporations as separate from society, with suppliers, investors and employees providing "inputs" transformed into "outputs" for customers. This mechanistic view lacked the two-way links that exist between firms and stakeholders in reality.
Stakeholder theory emerged about twenty years ago, recognizing corporations and society as "interpenetrating systems." R.E. Freeman argued that companies have unique stakeholder groups who affect and are affected by corporate activities. Primary stakeholders include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, and local communities, while secondary stakeholders like media and pressure groups can indirectly influence reputation.
We're now moving toward a systems-based theory that sees corporations embedded in networks of interdependent, evolving stakeholder relationships. This view acknowledges that stakeholder relationships can be sources of opportunity and competitive advantage rather than threats. James Moore's concept of "business ecosystem" describes these networks of reciprocal, mutually beneficial relationships that define a company and provide growth and renewal.
Systems theory recognizes that managers aren't separate from stakeholder relationships but part of them. Stakeholder networks are "socially constructed" or co-created, making the idea that corporations "manage" these relationships counterproductive. Traditional stakeholder-management techniques that seek to direct and control interactions often undermine the very relationships they aim to create, as formalized contracts ensure compliance but do little to build trust.
第 5 章
The FOSTER Framework: Building Collaborative Stakeholder Relationships
Building collaborative stakeholder relationships requires a systematic approach. The FOSTER framework provides a step-by-step guide where each letter represents a key element: F (Foundation for relationship building), O (Organizational alignment), S (Strategy development), T (Trust building), E (Evaluation), and R (Repeat, recognizing relationship building is continuous).
The first step involves creating a foundation through clarifying corporate values and ethical principles. Just as shared values are essential for interpersonal relationships, a company's social mission and values serve as the foundation for stakeholder relationships. A social mission statement links bottom-line business goals with broader social responsibilities and defines the balance between financial and nonfinancial outcomes. Vancouver City Savings Credit Union provides an excellent example with its mission statement: "Vancouver City Savings Credit Union is a democratic, ethical and innovative provider of financial services to its members. Through strong financial performance, we serve as a catalyst for the self-reliance and economic well-being of our membership and the community."
Corporate values that support collaboration include systems thinking (seeing organizations within their web of relationships), stewardship/service (prioritizing service over self-interest), authenticity and trust (believing others have your best interests at heart), wisdom of the individual (recognizing everyone holds part of the truth), and spirit of inquiry/risk taking/experimentation (encouraging learning from experience).
The second step involves organizational alignment-ensuring internal systems support collaboration before reaching out to build external relationships. Even with skilled employees, an organization's systems can discourage collaboration through limited communication, unnecessary delays, or difficulty obtaining resources for partnerships. High-involvement organizations create conditions where collaborative relationships flourish by encouraging open communication, minimizing bureaucracy, and using cross-functional teams. Empirical studies demonstrate links between internal organizational systems and relationship-building capacity-companies with collaborative problem-solving approaches and stakeholder-oriented management philosophies receive the most positive external stakeholder ratings on social performance measures.
Strategy development forms the third step. To identify strategically important stakeholder partners, companies must first inventory and assess their organization's network of stakeholder relationships. An environmental scan helps define gaps and identify future needs. Information about potential stakeholder partners helps assess compatibility and narrow down the list to those with similar values and organizational cultures. With this "short list," a strategy can be developed for fostering relationships with potential partner organizations.
Trust building, the fourth step, allows collaborative partnerships to survive inevitable ups and downs. The first stage involves exchanging information and developing structures, roles, and responsibilities. As the relationship progresses, trust deepens, expectations and values are clarified, and a shared language and vision emerges. This creates the "collaborative mind" with potential for "third-way" solutions. Throughout this process, groups must learn to resolve conflicts and communicate effectively, especially about sensitive issues like distribution of rewards and involvement of host organizations.
The fifth step, evaluation, helps avoid major problems and opens communication lines. Using a stakeholder audit, companies can monitor performance on key social-relationship goals, consult with stakeholders to understand their views, clarify and improve "social" performance, build employee and stakeholder support, and increase accountability through reporting.
Finally, relationship building involves ongoing effort and commitment to continuously learn from and respond to partners' interests and needs. To nourish relationships, companies must regularly seek feedback and use it to change their practices. Evaluation inevitably leads companies back to the beginning of the process: reassessing commitment, resolving organizational barriers, and establishing greater levels of trust.
第 6 章
Creating the Foundation: Corporate Mission, Values, and Ethics
The first stage of building collaborative stakeholder relationships involves assessing relationship building as a strategic direction, developing a corporate social mission, clarifying corporate values, fostering an ethical corporate culture, and communicating senior management commitment to stakeholder collaboration.
Senior management commitment is essential given that relationship building takes time and involves "giving before getting." The CEO and senior executives must be committed to stakeholder collaboration for long-term success, with a long-term view of the bottom-line benefits. They must assume the company has both an obligation and interest in helping stakeholders meet their goals.
Northern Telecom (Nortel) developed a comprehensive program for building collaborative stakeholder relationships. In the early 1990s, shareholders were the top priority, with customers second and less attention paid to employees, suppliers, and communities. This shifted in 1994 when employee and customer surveys showed correlation between employee and customer satisfaction. Staff members recommended improving relationships with employees, communities, and suppliers and incorporating these goals into the code of conduct. The company developed formal stakeholder commitments to customers (building closer ties to learn what they value), employees (protecting health and well-being, providing safe environments, treating individuals with respect), suppliers (developing long-term relationships based on environmental and ethical standards), and local communities (minimizing operational impacts and contributing to community well-being).
Involving employees in developing and formalizing a social mission generates internal understanding and commitment while clarifying corporate aims for external stakeholders. When employees and management share a vision beyond profit-making, ideas and solutions develop efficiently and creatively, increasing learning and productivity potential.
Simply creating ethics codes doesn't improve ethical behavior or build trust-based relationships. Effective approaches include creating conditions for individual contribution, supporting self-organization, recognizing talents, and enabling growth. Process matters too-employees should actively shape corporate social mission and values to align with personal values. Companies must raise awareness of ethical problems, provide training for ethical thinking, and establish structures for action when issues arise.
第 7 章
Aligning Systems and Structures for Collaboration
Creating internal structures that support collaboration prevents wasted time and resources while fostering a culture of shared success. Effective reward systems should embody four key characteristics: simplicity in design, timeliness in delivery, thorough communication across the organization, and visible senior management recognition. Organizations find the most success with a hybrid approach that combines individual and group performance measurements, allowing them to reward both personal initiative and team achievements. Companies can implement specific metrics around stakeholder satisfaction scores, quantifiable impacts of relationship building on revenue and costs, successful completion of cross-functional projects, demonstrated ethical leadership, and measurable contributions to colleagues' professional development.
Effective collaboration fundamentally depends on robust multiway communication channels. As Frank Sonnenberg emphasizes in Managing with a Conscience, "Employees must feel free to network with anyone who has the necessary information to accomplish an activity, without regard to level, business unit, or other artificial boundary." This communication flows through both formal channels like structured meetings and reports, and informal pathways such as spontaneous conversations and digital chat platforms. The interaction matrix spans multiple dimensions: lateral communication between peers, vertical communication between hierarchical levels, and external communication with partners, suppliers, and customers.
Modern information systems serve as the backbone for collaborative knowledge creation and sharing. "Groupware" applications have evolved to include sophisticated features enabling real-time multi-user document creation, contextual team feedback loops, and threaded discussions that preserve institutional knowledge. Electronic meeting systems have transformed remote collaboration, allowing geographically dispersed participants to generate ideas, conduct structured evaluations, and reach consensus with professional facilitation. Advanced multimedia tools enable teams to create visual models, map complex processes, and coordinate cross-functional activities with unprecedented clarity.
Successful collaborative ventures require deep mutual understanding of operational contexts, technological capabilities, and business practices across participating organizations. State-of-the-art multimedia conference systems now closely replicate the dynamics of in-person meetings across multiple time zones, incorporating features like high-definition video, simultaneous document editing, and integrated discussion forums. Some platforms offer anonymity features that have proven particularly valuable for surfacing and discussing controversial ideas or sensitive feedback, resulting in more balanced participation, reduced bias, and enhanced problem-solving outcomes.
The organizational evolution from rigid hierarchies to more flexible, network-based structures continues across industries. Total Quality Management's emphasis on cross-functional teams and systematic processes has created a foundation for collaborative work styles. Many organizations have embraced Peter Senge's "Fifth Discipline" framework, implementing practices around systems thinking, personal mastery, examining mental models, building shared vision, and promoting team learning. While these approaches have successfully expanded collaboration with customers and external stakeholders, many companies still struggle with internal transformation, particularly in aligning incentives, breaking down silos, and fostering genuine cross-functional cooperation. Progressive organizations are addressing these challenges by redesigning physical workspaces, updating performance metrics, and investing in collaborative technologies that support new ways of working.
第 8 章
Measuring Success: Social Accounting as a Management Tool
Social accounting systematically records, presents, and interprets a company's non-financial performance, extending beyond traditional financial metrics to capture the full scope of organizational impact. It provides a comprehensive framework to assess relationship-building effectiveness and improve relationship quality across all stakeholder groups. A management-oriented approach integrates accounting processes with strategy development and decision-making cycles, designed to provide timely, relevant information that helps managers improve stakeholder relationships and optimize business processes for both social and financial outcomes.
Traditional financial measurement systems and conventional social audits have significant limitations in communicating decision-relevant information within corporations. Financial measures face multiple criticisms: they are too historical and backward-looking, lack predictive power for future performance, often incentivize short-term thinking and wrong behaviors, and give insufficient consideration to intangible assets like social and intellectual capital. These limitations become particularly apparent when organizations attempt to measure their social impact and stakeholder relationships. A management-oriented social accounting system addresses these shortcomings by providing companies with real-time information needed to continuously improve social performance, focusing on intangible drivers of long-term success such as employee know-how, supplier trust, customer satisfaction, community relationships, and corporate reputation.
A stakeholder audit provides a structured, step-by-step approach to designing and implementing assessment within a strategic management system. The audit supports continuous feedback and learning crucial for relationship-building, providing multiple opportunities for stakeholder dialogue and collecting both qualitative and quantitative information about corporate impacts. The production and dissemination of the audit report builds trust by ensuring transparency and accountability, while also creating opportunities for stakeholder engagement and collaborative improvement.
VanCity Credit Union exemplifies the successful convergence of different social accounting approaches, undertaking a stakeholder-focused, quantitative, and comprehensive social audit while working to incorporate results into existing management systems. Their journey began in 1992 when directors decided to broaden their annual report to include social performance information, recognizing the need for broader accountability. By 1996, they had developed sophisticated reporting mechanisms covering community economic development, employee volunteerism, job creation initiatives, environmental impact assessment, and comprehensive employee benefits analysis. In 1997, they elevated their commitment by conducting a more comprehensive audit, systematically identifying key stakeholders through detailed mapping exercises, developing specific performance indicators for each stakeholder group, benchmarking against industry best practices, and conducting extensive focus groups to assess relationship quality and identify emerging social responsibility issues. This process included measuring impacts on local communities, tracking environmental initiatives, assessing workplace diversity and inclusion, and evaluating supplier relationships.
The VanCity example demonstrates how social accounting can evolve from basic reporting to become an integral part of strategic management, informing decision-making at all levels of the organization. Their approach shows how combining quantitative metrics with qualitative stakeholder feedback creates a more complete picture of organizational performance and impact. This comprehensive framework enables organizations to better understand and manage their social and environmental impacts while maintaining strong financial performance.
第 9 章
Looking Forward: The Future of Corporate-Stakeholder Relations
Establishing good reputation, trusting supplier relationships, strong community linkages, and responsible environmental practices ensures long-term profitability and sustainability. While business leaders are beginning to look beyond financial performance at these intangible drivers of success, this movement has only just begun. Management attention is shifting from internal business practices to awareness of the external environment. Total Quality Management, with its customer focus, was the first stage, followed by the learning organization concept. The next wave will be the network of long-term relationships a company establishes with stakeholders, the values supporting those relationships, and the processes needed to maintain them.
This new world isn't just around the corner-in many ways the future is already here. The profound impacts of technological change and shifting social attitudes are about to be unleashed upon business. Democratized, instant communication means corporations can no longer control their reputations-everything about a company can and will be communicated. Knowledge workers will choose employers whose values align with their own. Companies are already being pressured to offer paid volunteer time, reduced workweeks, smaller pay differentials between CEOs and employees, and to include stakeholders on boards of directors. These demands for corporate stakeholder responsibility will escalate in the coming decade.
The stakeholder model helps companies build collaborative relationships essential for success in the new economy. The longevity of these relationships depends on five corporate competencies: listening well, measuring intangible performance aspects, aligning corporate values with stakeholder values, balancing diverse interests, and continuously improving relationships through feedback. Companies that listen effectively tap vital information pools, enabling quick responses. Organizations with multi-way communication systems will thrive. New non-asset-based performance measures will help manage intangibles like reputation and loyalty. Companies that align their values with stakeholders will withstand consumer vagaries and media scrutiny, while those balancing stakeholder interests will maintain support even when results aren't favorable. Finally, connecting social accounting with strategic planning ensures actions support both social and financial goals, improving stakeholder relationships and competitiveness.
Companies with compelling direction, strong values, and collaborative stakeholder relationships will thrive in our increasingly turbulent, competitive global economy.
