第 4 章
The Widow Custis and a New Life
Washington's military career took an unexpected turn when a severe case of dysentery forced him to seek medical attention in Williamsburg during the spring of 1758. This seemingly unfortunate illness would lead to a fortuitous encounter that would change the course of his life. While recovering at the home of a prominent local family, he met Martha Dandridge Custis, a poised and accomplished twenty-seven-year-old widow with two young children, John Parke "Jacky" and Martha Parke "Patsy" Custis.
Martha's story was remarkable in colonial Virginia. Following the deaths of her first husband Daniel Parke Custis, her father-in-law, and her half-brother-in-law in quick succession, she had become one of Virginia's wealthiest women. Her inheritance was vast: eighteen thousand acres spread across multiple plantations, approximately 290 enslaved people, and substantial financial investments. This made her one of the most eligible women in Virginia, with numerous suitors vying for her attention.
Their courtship progressed with remarkable speed, characteristic of the era but also indicating genuine mutual attraction. After his initial visit to her White House plantation, Washington returned within a week, clearly smitten. He began making preparations for married life, ordering significant additions to Mount Vernon and purchasing an engagement ring in May 1758. Historical records suggest he proposed during a June visit to Williamsburg, when he was in the city for military business.
Their wedding on January 6, 1759, was a grand affair befitting their social status. Martha wore an elegant yellow brocade gown over white silk, while Washington chose to emphasize his role as a Virginia gentleman by wearing civilian clothes rather than his military uniform. The ceremony marked the beginning of their life together at Mount Vernon, which would become one of the most prominent estates in colonial America.
This marriage coincided with Washington's growing disillusionment with the British military establishment. Though he had once written passionately that his "inclinations are strongly bent to arms," his experiences during the French and Indian War had revealed the stark differences between colonial and British interests. The war had inadvertently become a catalyst for colonial self-awareness, as American-born officers like Washington increasingly recognized that their goals and values diverged significantly from those of the crown. This realization, though not immediately apparent to Washington himself, would prove prophetic. The next time he would encounter British forces on the battlefield, it would not be as their ally but as their most formidable opponent, leading an army of his fellow colonists in the fight for independence.
第 5 章
The Reluctant Revolutionary
In 1772, thirteen years after leaving military service, Washington posed for a portrait in his old Virginia militia uniform, though it had grown snug around his midsection. The sword and musket in the painting sent a clear message that he remained "bent to arms" despite years as a gentleman farmer.
Washington's transition to civilian life had been smooth-his wealthy wife, considerable landholdings, and plantation gave him standing in Virginia society. Martha and he enjoyed Williamsburg's social scene during House of Burgesses sessions, dancing and hunting with the gentry while he served as churchwarden, trustee, and justice.
Parliament's restrictions increasingly angered Washington. After joining the Mississippi Land Company, the crown banned colonists from western expansion. The 1765 Stamp Act taxed everything from newspapers to playing cards, prompting colonial protests. When Parliament abandoned the Stamp Act, colonists thanked King George III, not yet realizing he was no friend to America.
The colonists returned to their spendthrift ways after the Stamp Act repeal, but Parliament soon imposed the Townshend Acts, taxing paint, glass, and tea. The Virginia Burgesses demanded repeal and wrote directly to the King, believing he was being misled by advisers. When Lord Dunmore dissolved the House, they met at Raleigh Tavern and agreed to boycott British goods. Though the boycott faltered, Boston's Tea Party in 1773 and Parliament's harsh Intolerable Acts response pushed Washington toward radicalization. "Parliament hath no more Right to put their hands into my Pocket, without my consent, than I have to put my hands into yours," he declared, abandoning hope for justice from London.
第 6 章
The Reluctant Commander
In September 1775, Washington donned his military uniform again-not for a portrait, but for war. He had exhausted diplomatic options, writing "humble and dutiful" letters to London that went ignored. Now he rode to Philadelphia to represent Virginia at the Second Continental Congress.
Washington made himself visible everywhere-visiting thirty-one homes of like-minded colonists, appearing in churches from Anglican to Quaker, and drinking in local taverns. His "soldier like air" and martial dignity distinguished him in a crowd. Though he wasn't officially campaigning, his quiet charisma worked. Delegates found him "discreet and virtuous" and listened when he spoke.
When hostilities broke out in spring 1775, Washington had clear advantages over other candidates for command. Unlike intellectual men like John Adams who had no military experience, Washington knew how the Royal Army operated. His main competitor, Charles Lee, damaged his chances by demanding compensation for potential property losses. Meanwhile, Washington offered to serve without pay.
His wealth meant he could support himself and perhaps others, while his Virginian heritage helped unite the colonies. New England had already mobilized, but Southern support required a Southern leader. On June 15, 1775, the delegates reached a unanimous decision: they would raise an army with Washington as commander in chief.
Washington wrote to Martha as if signing his death warrant, claiming he had "used every endeavour in my power to avoid" the appointment. But his ready uniform and collection of busts depicting military heroes suggested he yearned for this triumph. After sixteen years of civilian life, he remained eager for recognition. This unanimous election offered the ultimate opportunity to distinguish himself not by birth or marriage, but by achievement.
第 7 章
Winning Beyond the Battlefield
Despite facing five different British generals throughout the Revolutionary War, Washington remained the constant American commander from 1775 to 1783. However, he "lost more battles than any victorious general in modern history," as even his admirers acknowledge. His greatest achievements came not on the battlefield but through diplomacy, propaganda, and espionage.
The British didn't see themselves as invaders in 1776, but they showed up with the largest invasion force they had ever mustered-400 ships carrying 32,000 troops. Against this formidable enemy, Washington had little artillery, no cavalry, and no naval support-perhaps 19,000 troops in total.
When Colonel James Paterson met Washington at Knox's home in New York, he stood before him "as if he was before something supernatural," with "Every other word 'May it please your Excellency.'" Still, he had nothing new to offer except flattery. Washington told him "the Americans had not offended, and therefore they needed no pardon." This wasn't about decorum but about what America would negotiate-and independence wasn't on the table.
Washington actively sought accounts of enemy brutality to distinguish "brave Americans, contending for liberty, from infamous mercenary ravagers." These stories were compiled into congressional reports and distributed to newspapers throughout the country as powerful propaganda. Though small in size, newspapers had enormous reach-they were read aloud in meeting houses, coffee shops, and taverns. Washington studied them carefully, even convincing Congress to fund the New Jersey Journal over which he had total editorial control.
In 1778, Washington sought "a liquid which nothing but a counter liquor can make legible" for secret correspondence. Sir James Jay, a physician, developed this "sympathetic stain" but refused to share his recipe with anyone. Unlike the British with centuries of espionage experience, Washington had to build an intelligence network from scratch. He established the Culper Ring under Major Benjamin Tallmadge, who recruited from his hometown of Setauket. Abraham Woodhull made dead drops on his farm, with Anna Strong signaling their readiness through laundry arrangements on her clothesline.
第 8 章
The Personal Cost of Revolution
Washington's eight-year absence from Mount Vernon came at tremendous personal cost. He worried constantly about his family's safety, particularly Martha's, fearing she might be kidnapped by British forces. Though Martha herself remained unconcerned, the British did eventually come to Mount Vernon.
In 1781, the HMS Savage approached Washington's estate. Rather than risk destruction, Lund Washington, George's cousin who managed the plantation, supplied the ship with provisions. This decision infuriated Washington, who wrote that he would have preferred his house burned than to have supplied the enemy. More significantly, seventeen enslaved people seized the opportunity to escape to the British ship, responding to Lord Dunmore's proclamation offering freedom to slaves who joined British forces against their rebel masters.
Smallpox threatened to defeat the Continental Army more effectively than British forces could, with 20 percent of Washington's troops suffering or dying from the disease by 1776. Despite Virginia's laws against inoculation and widespread fears about the procedure's risks, Washington ordered compulsory mass inoculations using variolation, a new technique. This decisive public health measure dramatically reduced smallpox fatalities among soldiers from 17 percent to just 1 percent by war's end, proving to be one of Washington's most important strategic decisions of the Revolution.
The war aged Washington considerably. By its end, the once 44-year-old general with auburn hair had become a 52-year-old with gray hair, deep facial creases, rheumatism, poor eyesight, and deteriorating teeth. Despite his declining health, Washington masterfully used his physical condition to quell a brewing mutiny at Newburgh, New York, where unpaid officers planned mass desertion. Donning new spectacles during his address, he humbly remarked, "I have grown gray in your service and now find myself growing blind," instantly defusing the rebellion.
第 9 章
From Citizen to President
On December 23, 1783, Washington formally resigned his commission in a carefully choreographed ceremony before Congress in Annapolis. Following precise protocols that emphasized civilian authority, Washington delivered an emotional address with shaking hands and ragged voice, commending the nation "to the protection of Almighty God" before surrendering his commission papers. The audience wept as he concluded, "I retire from the great theatre of Action... and take my leave of all the employments of public life."
By late 1785, Washington had happily retreated into private life at Mount Vernon, absorbed in family matters and agricultural pursuits. His farming innovations included acquiring a Spanish jackass named Royal Gift for breeding mules, though Washington discovered the animal needed "stimulus" from female donkeys before it would mate with American horses. Despite his desire for tranquility, Washington found retirement frustrating-he struggled to collect debts, manage his extensive properties, and handle an overwhelming volume of correspondence from admirers.
Despite his genuine desire to remain a private citizen, Washington watched with growing alarm as the young nation faltered under the weak Articles of Confederation. By 1787, his contemporaries were urging him to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, pulling him reluctantly back into public service.
The first presidential election was America's least dramatic affair-no debates, no campaigns, just a foregone conclusion. When Congress tallied the votes on April 6, 1789, Washington had appeared on every ballot, receiving sixty-nine electoral votes. Washington's journey to New York became a triumphant procession. Rather than citizens bowing to him as they would a king, Washington bowed to the people-and they adored him for it.
第 10 章
The Weight of Precedent
America faced crushing wartime debt-forty million dollars owed to citizens and twenty-five million to foreign creditors. Hamilton proposed a central bank that would assume states' debts but never repay the principal loans. This plan angered Southerners who had already paid their debts and feared northern dominance. Jefferson brokered a compromise: Madison and Jefferson accepted Hamilton's financial plan in exchange for a southern location for the permanent capital.
In Philadelphia, Washington established his presidential household, but faced an ethical crisis regarding slavery. Philadelphia's Gradual Abolition Act would free any slave who lived in the city for six months. To circumvent this law, Washington rotated his enslaved staff between Philadelphia and Mount Vernon, particularly concerned about his chef Hercules.
After George Augustine Washington's funeral in April 1793, President Washington faced an immediate international crisis when France declared war on Great Britain. He called an emergency cabinet meeting on April 19 to determine whether America's 1778 treaty with France remained valid after the French monarchy's fall.
Washington favored neutrality, recognizing America's military limitations and the strategic advantage of selling goods to both warring nations. On April 22, Washington issued a Neutrality Proclamation declaring America's impartial stance. This policy extended to his personal conduct-he refused to receive Lafayette's counterrevolutionary relatives, though he did privately arrange for Lafayette's son to study at Harvard.
Washington's most significant overreaction came during the 1794 Whiskey Rebellion. When Pennsylvania distillers protested an excise tax, Washington bypassed constitutional constraints to deploy 12,000 troops against his own citizens-becoming the only president to personally lead forces against Americans. When troops arrived, they found no rebels to fight, and Washington ultimately pardoned the few who were convicted. This heavy-handed response drew criticism even from Madison, who called it "perhaps the greatest error of his political life."
第 11 章
The Final Chapter
Washington's neutrality policy proved difficult to maintain as British ships seized American vessels and conscripted sailors. To avoid war, he sent John Jay to negotiate a treaty with Britain. The resulting Jay Treaty barely passed the Senate and sparked public outrage. By September 1795, Washington refused to appoint anyone with opposing political views, calling it "political Suicide." His popularity waned significantly-his birthday in February 1796 passed without celebration, and Congress even voted against a brief adjournment to wish him well.
In his final months in office, Washington's relationships continued to fracture. He sent his last letter to Jefferson in August 1796, a mere five sentences long, ending their correspondence forever. He drafted his Farewell Address with Hamilton's help, warning against foreign entanglements and partisan politics. The address, published in September 1796, cautioned that "cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men" might subvert democracy and that partisanship would reduce government to bickering representatives. Ironically, Washington himself had become increasingly partisan.
After retiring to Mount Vernon for the third time, Washington settled into a fatalistic acceptance of his mortality, telling his nephew Lawrence that he would likely never travel more than 25 miles from home again. His retirement schedule was regimented: riding out at daybreak to visit farms, writing letters in his library, dining between 2 and 3 p.m., and retiring by 9 p.m.
On December 12, 1799, despite rain, hail, and snow, Washington spent five hours riding his farms. Returning home wet, he joined Martha for dinner without changing. By Friday, he had developed a sore throat but insisted on going out again to mark trees for felling. Multiple doctors arrived, performing harmful treatments including bloodletting, blistering, and induced vomiting that only worsened his condition. By 10 p.m., after losing pints of blood, he spoke his final words: "'Tis well."
第 12 章
The Legacy Reconsidered
Modern accounts of Washington's will often praise him as the only slave-holding Founding Father to free his slaves, but this narrative lacks context. Unlike Benjamin Franklin, who freed his slaves during his lifetime and petitioned Congress to abolish slavery in 1790, Washington only stipulated freedom for his 123 slaves after Martha's death. Other Virginians like Robert Carter III had already begun freeing hundreds of slaves in 1791.
Living in fear of Washington's slaves who knew freedom awaited them upon her death, Martha signed a deed of manumission on December 15, 1800, freeing 123 people. When she died on May 22, 1802, her 150 dower slaves were divided among her grandchildren, tragically separating about twenty families.
Alexis Coe's biography offers a refreshing reassessment of Washington-neither the marble god of traditional histories nor merely a flawed man of his time. Instead, we meet a complex figure: ambitious yet principled, a military leader whose greatest victories came through diplomacy, a slaveholder who recognized slavery's moral bankruptcy but couldn't fully break from it, and a president who warned against partisanship while increasingly embracing it himself.
In stripping away the mythology, Coe doesn't diminish Washington but humanizes him. His greatness lies not in perfection but in his ability to rise above his limitations, to learn from failures, and to place country above self at crucial moments. By examining Washington as he truly was-not as we've needed him to be-we gain a deeper appreciation for both his remarkable achievements and the ongoing work of perfecting the nation he helped create.
