第 1 章
Beyond Competition: Creating Uncontested Market Space
What if you could make your competition completely irrelevant? In 2005, W. Chan Kim and Renee Mauborgne introduced a revolutionary concept that would transform business strategy worldwide. Their book "Blue Ocean Strategy" has since sold over 3.5 million copies across 43 languages, with the term "blue ocean" entering the global business vernacular. This isn't just another business book-it's been named one of the 40 most influential books in Chinese history and has been embraced by organizations ranging from Fortune 500 companies to governments worldwide. Unlike traditional approaches that focus on outperforming rivals in existing markets, blue ocean strategy challenges companies to create entirely new market spaces where competition becomes irrelevant. Through systematic frameworks and compelling case studies, Kim and Mauborgne demonstrate how organizations can break free from bloody competition to discover uncontested waters teeming with new possibilities.
第 2 章
Red Oceans vs. Blue Oceans: A Tale of Two Strategic Universes
Imagine a market universe divided into two distinct types of oceans. Red oceans represent all industries in existence today-the known market space where industry boundaries are defined and accepted, and competitive rules are understood. In these crowded waters, companies fight viciously for market share, turning the ocean bloody with competition. As markets become increasingly saturated, prospects for growth and profits diminish. Products become commoditized, and cutthroat competition turns the red ocean redder.
Blue oceans, by contrast, represent untapped market space, demand creation, and opportunities for highly profitable growth. While some blue oceans are created far beyond existing industry boundaries, most are formed by expanding existing industry boundaries from within red oceans. In blue oceans, competition is irrelevant because the rules haven't been set yet.
Consider Cirque du Soleil, which reinvented circus entertainment by eliminating expensive elements like animal shows and star performers while incorporating theatrical sophistication and artistic richness. Within twenty years of its creation, Cirque achieved revenue levels that took Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey-the global circus industry champions-more than a century to attain. Most remarkably, Cirque accomplished this in a declining industry where traditional strategic analysis would have advised against entry.
The strategic logic of red and blue oceans differs fundamentally. Red ocean strategy focuses on competing within existing market space, beating the competition, exploiting existing demand, and making the value-cost trade-off. Blue ocean strategy, by contrast, creates uncontested market space, makes competition irrelevant, creates and captures new demand, and breaks the value-cost trade-off through a whole-system approach called value innovation.
The need for blue ocean strategy has intensified dramatically in recent years due to several factors: accelerated technological advances leading to productivity improvements and supply exceeding demand in many industries; globalization eliminating trade barriers and monopolistic havens; and declining populations in many developed markets. These forces have accelerated commoditization, intensified price wars, and shrunk profit margins, making the creation of blue oceans increasingly essential for profitable growth.
第 3 章
Value Innovation: The Cornerstone of Blue Ocean Strategy
At the heart of blue ocean strategy lies value innovation-the simultaneous pursuit of differentiation and low cost. Traditional competitive strategy presents a choice between creating greater value for customers at higher cost (differentiation) or creating reasonable value at lower cost (cost leadership). Value innovation defies this trade-off by pursuing both differentiation and low cost simultaneously.
Value innovation occurs only when companies align innovation with utility, price, and cost positions. Innovations without this alignment might be technologically impressive but fail to translate into commercial success-as witnessed with Motorola's Iridium satellite phone project, which despite technological brilliance, offered poor utility for its target market of global executives who couldn't use it inside buildings or cars.
The critical insight is that market boundaries and industry structure aren't fixed-they can be reconstructed by the actions and beliefs of industry players. While the structuralist view (represented by Michael Porter's five forces framework) sees industry structure as given, the reconstructionist view underpinning blue ocean strategy recognizes that market boundaries exist primarily in managers' minds and can be redrawn through strategic choices.
Consider [yellow tail], an Australian wine that created a blue ocean in the traditionally intimidating U.S. wine market. Rather than competing on traditional factors like vineyard prestige, aging quality, and complex terminology, [yellow tail] eliminated or reduced these elements while emphasizing ease of selection, fun, and adventure. Within two years of its 2001 launch, [yellow tail] became the fastest-growing brand in the histories of both Australian and U.S. wine industries, surpassing wines from France and Italy without traditional marketing campaigns. By 2003, it had become the number one red wine in a 750ml bottle sold in the United States, and today remains one of the world's top five wine brands with 2.5 million glasses consumed daily.
第 4 章
Analytical Tools for Charting Blue Oceans
Creating blue oceans requires systematic tools to make the process actionable rather than leaving it to creative vision or luck. The strategy canvas serves as both diagnostic and action framework, capturing the current state of play in known market space and allowing companies to visualize their strategic profile relative to competitors.
The horizontal axis of the strategy canvas shows the range of factors an industry competes on and invests in, while the vertical axis captures the offering level buyers receive across these competitive factors. A company's value curve-the graphic depiction of its relative performance across industry factors-reveals its strategic profile.
When examining the U.S. wine industry circa 2000, the strategy canvas revealed remarkable convergence among competitors. Premium wines all competed on the same factors at high levels, while budget wines competed on the same factors at low levels. Their value curves differed in altitude but shared the same basic shape. This convergence signaled a red ocean ripe for a blue ocean creation.
To break from competition and create a new value curve, companies use the four actions framework, asking:
1. Which factors should be eliminated that the industry has taken for granted?
2. Which factors should be reduced well below industry standards?
3. Which factors should be raised well above industry standards?
4. Which entirely new factors should be created that the industry has never offered?
The eliminate-reduce-raise-create grid complements this framework by pushing companies to simultaneously pursue differentiation and low cost. [yellow tail] applied this approach by eliminating wine complexity and aging, reducing wine terminology and vineyard prestige, raising ease of selection and drinking, and creating fun and adventure-elements previously absent from the wine industry.
A good blue ocean strategy exhibits three qualities: focus (investing only in key factors), divergence (departing from competitors' profiles), and a compelling tagline (communicating the offering clearly). [yellow tail]'s "A fun and simple wine to be enjoyed every day" exemplifies this clarity, as does Southwest Airlines' "The speed of a plane at the price of a car-whenever you need it."
第 5 章
Reconstructing Market Boundaries: The Six Paths Framework
To create blue oceans systematically, companies must challenge fundamental assumptions about their industries. The six paths framework helps organizations break from competition by looking across conventional boundaries:
Path 1: Look across alternative industries. Companies compete not just within their industry but with alternatives serving the same purpose. NetJets created a blue ocean by identifying why corporations choose commercial airlines (cost efficiency) versus private jets (time savings, convenience) and offering fractional jet ownership that delivered private jet benefits at business-class prices.
Path 2: Look across strategic groups within industries. Curves revolutionized the fitness industry by combining the decisive advantages of traditional health clubs and home exercise programs. By eliminating elements women didn't value (fancy machines, pools, locker rooms) while providing social motivation in convenient 30-minute workouts at $30/month, Curves grew to 10,000 locations within ten years.
Path 3: Look across the chain of buyers. Most industries converge on a single buyer group, overlooking that purchasing decisions often involve purchasers (who pay), users (who use the product), and influencers. Bloomberg succeeded by focusing on users (traders and analysts) rather than purchasers (IT managers), designing terminals with specialized keyboards and analytics that created such user demand that IT managers were forced to purchase them.
Path 4: Look across complementary product and service offerings. NABI revolutionized the transit bus industry by focusing on complementary maintenance costs rather than just purchase price. Their fiberglass buses were corrosion-free, easier to repair, and 30-35% lighter, offering municipalities much lower lifecycle costs despite higher initial prices.
Path 5: Look across functional or emotional appeal. Industries typically converge on either functional appeal (price and utility) or emotional appeal (feelings). QB House created a blue ocean in Japan's barbershop industry by shifting from emotional to functional orientation, reducing traditional one-hour haircuts with hot towels and tea service to ten-minute basic cuts at one-third the price.
Path 6: Look across time. Apple exemplified this approach with iTunes. Observing the flood of illegal music file sharing in the late 1990s, Apple recognized a decisive trend toward digital music consumption. Rather than fighting this shift like the recording industry, Apple launched iTunes in 2003, offering legal, easy-to-use downloads at reasonable prices that solved key customer pain points.
第 6 章
The Strategic Planning Process: Focus on the Big Picture
Most companies remain trapped in red oceans because their strategic planning process emphasizes competing within existing market space. Typical strategic plans begin with lengthy industry analysis, followed by discussions about increasing market share or cutting costs, culminating in thick documents filled with spreadsheets. This approach leads managers to spend more time filling in boxes and running numbers than developing clear strategies to break from competition.
To overcome this planning risk, companies need a process that focuses on the big picture rather than numbers. The four-step visualization process helps organizations do exactly that:
1. Visual Awakening: Teams draw the company's current value curve alongside competitors', creating a powerful wake-up call about strategic flaws like lack of focus or convergence with competitors.
2. Visual Exploration: Managers experience firsthand how customers use their products by interviewing current customers, lost customers, competitors' customers, and noncustomers. They then create new value curves using the six-path framework.
3. Visual Strategy Fair: Teams present their strategy canvases at a "visual strategy fair" with just ten minutes per strategy, forcing clarity and simplicity. External stakeholders vote for their favorites, creating a transparent selection process free from politics.
4. Visual Communication: The final strategy is communicated through a one-page picture showing old versus new strategic profiles. Every employee can instantly see where the company stands and where efforts need to focus.
Samsung Electronics institutionalized this approach through its Value Innovation Program (VIP) Center, established during the 1998 Asian financial crisis. The five-story center became a hub where cross-functional teams developed differentiated, lower-cost products. This approach helped transform Samsung from a $16.6 billion company in 1998 to a $216.7 billion global brand leader by 2013.
第 7 章
Reaching Beyond Existing Demand: The Three Tiers of Noncustomers
To maximize the size of a blue ocean, companies must reach beyond existing demand-a key component of value innovation that reduces the scale risk of creating new markets. Rather than focusing exclusively on existing customers or pursuing finer segmentation, blue ocean strategy looks to noncustomers and builds on powerful commonalities in what buyers value.
There are three tiers of noncustomers that can be transformed into customers:
First-tier noncustomers sit at the edge of your market, minimally using current offerings while searching for something better. Pret A Manger tapped into this potential by identifying three key commonalities among first-tier noncustomers of restaurants: they wanted lunch fast, fresh and healthy, and reasonably priced. By delivering restaurant-quality sandwiches made fresh daily in a sleek setting with a streamlined 90-second service cycle, Pret converted soon-to-be noncustomers into loyal customers.
Second-tier noncustomers consciously choose against your market because offerings are unacceptable or beyond their means. JCDecaux transformed outdoor advertising by focusing on these noncustomers. Traditional outdoor advertising was unpopular because billboards and transport ads were viewed only briefly in passing. JCDecaux's solution was "street furniture"-providing bus stops and urban fixtures free to municipalities in exchange for exclusive advertising rights. This created breakthrough value through increased exposure time and richer content.
Third-tier unexplored noncustomers are the farthest from existing customers-they've never been targeted because their needs were assumed to belong to other markets. The tooth whitening market exploded when oral care companies discovered they could deliver solutions at lower costs than dentists, who had traditionally owned this service.
When deciding which tier to target, focus on the biggest opportunity your organization can capture. Even better, look for overlapping commonalities across all three tiers to maximize the latent demand you can unleash.
第 8 章
The Strategic Sequence: From Idea to Commercial Reality
To ensure your blue ocean idea becomes commercially viable, follow a four-step strategic sequence that dramatically reduces business model risk:
1. Buyer Utility: Does your offering deliver exceptional utility? The buyer utility map helps identify whether your innovation creates a truly different value proposition by examining six utility levers (customer productivity, simplicity, convenience, risk reduction, fun/image, and environmental friendliness) across six stages of the buyer experience cycle (purchase, delivery, use, supplements, maintenance, and disposal).
2. Strategic Price: Is your offering priced to attract the mass of target buyers? This requires looking beyond traditional industry boundaries to understand price sensitivities of potential new customers. By plotting the price and volume of alternative products serving the same purpose, companies can identify the price corridor that captures the largest group of target buyers.
3. Target Cost: Can you produce at the target cost while earning healthy profits? Rather than letting costs drive prices, start with the strategic price and deduct your desired profit margin to determine the target cost. Meeting aggressive target costs requires streamlining operations, partnering with other companies, or changing the industry's pricing model.
4. Adoption: Have you addressed adoption hurdles for all stakeholders? Even brilliant business models can fail if they threaten the status quo without addressing fears and resistance. Companies must educate three key stakeholder groups-employees, business partners, and the general public-about why the new approach is necessary and beneficial.
The blue ocean idea (BOI) index provides a simple test to ensure commercial success by evaluating these four elements as an integral whole. Failed products like Philips' CD-i and Motorola's Iridium would have revealed their weaknesses had they been evaluated against this index. In contrast, NTT DoCoMo's i-mode-the world's first widely adopted smartphone-succeeded by passing all four criteria, offering exceptional utility at strategic pricing with achievable target costs and strong adoption strategies.
第 9 章
Overcoming Organizational Hurdles Through Tipping Point Leadership
Once a company develops a blue ocean strategy with a profitable business model, execution becomes the challenge. Companies face four key hurdles: cognitive (waking employees to the need for strategic shift), limited resources (assuming greater resources are needed), motivation (getting key players to move fast), and politics (overcoming organizational resistance).
Tipping point leadership overcomes these hurdles by focusing on points of disproportionate influence rather than mounting massive responses requiring proportional investments. The New York Police Department under Bill Bratton exemplifies this approach. Despite record-high crime rates, a frozen budget, demoralized force, and entrenched corruption, Bratton transformed New York into America's safest large city in less than two years without budget increases.
To break the cognitive hurdle, tipping point leaders don't rely on numbers but make people experience harsh reality firsthand. Bratton made top management ride the subway day and night, confronting operational problems directly rather than relying on statistics. He also arranged town hall meetings between officers and residents to hear customer complaints firsthand.
To jump the resource hurdle, leaders focus on multiplying the value of existing resources by redirecting them from cold spots (high resource input but low impact) to hot spots (low resource input but high performance gains). Bratton achieved the sharpest drop in subway crime not by increasing police numbers but by targeting officers at crime hot spots.
To overcome the motivational hurdle, leaders focus on kingpins (key influencers), place them in a fishbowl (making performance transparent), and atomize challenges into achievable pieces. Bratton's biweekly Compstat meetings made precinct commanders explain their performance in front of peers and superiors, creating an intense performance culture almost immediately.
To knock over political hurdles, leaders secure a consigliere (insider who knows the political landscape), leverage angels (those with most to gain), and silence devils (those with most to lose). When New York's courts opposed Bratton's quality-of-life crime focus, he rallied supporters including the mayor and district attorneys to isolate the courts, who couldn't publicly oppose making the city safer.
第 10 章
Building Execution Into Strategy Through Fair Process
A company's success depends on motivating everyone from top management to frontline employees to support and execute strategy. Research shows that fair process distinguishes successful blue ocean strategic moves from failures by creating a culture of trust and commitment that inspires voluntary cooperation.
Fair process comprises three mutually reinforcing elements: engagement (involving individuals in strategic decisions), explanation (ensuring everyone understands why final decisions are made), and expectation clarity (clearly stating new rules, goals, and consequences). All three criteria must be present collectively to create judgments of fair process.
The power of fair process lies in providing both intellectual and emotional recognition. When people feel intellectually valued, they eagerly share knowledge. When emotionally recognized, they become inspired to give their all. Conversely, when fair process is violated, people experience intellectual indignation and emotional insecurity, actively resisting implementation.
Consider elevator manufacturer Elco's contrasting experiences at two plants implementing the same cellular manufacturing system. At Chester plant, management violated all fair process principles by bringing in consultants without explanation, creating rumors about downsizing. Despite the benefits of the new system, employees could only see negatives, refusing assignments and fighting among themselves. At High Park plant, management followed fair process principles through plant-wide meetings explaining business conditions, providing clear expectations about new responsibilities, and establishing a no-layoff policy. By practicing the three principles together, High Park management won employee support while Chester descended into distrust and resistance.
第 11 章
Aligning Value, Profit, and People Propositions
Three propositions are essential for successful strategy: the value proposition that attracts buyers, the profit proposition that enables monetization, and the people proposition that motivates execution. Without aligning all three, companies risk short-lived success or failure.
Comic Relief demonstrates how strategic alignment produces a sustainable blue ocean strategy. Founded in 1985, it leapfrogged existing UK charities by achieving 96% national brand awareness and raising over 950 million while maintaining lower costs than competitors. Comic Relief's breakthrough "Red Nose Day" combines community "fun-raising" with a star-studded comedy telethon, making giving personal, affordable, and enjoyable. Its profit proposition eliminates costly traditional fundraising activities, while its people proposition creates wins for everyone involved-volunteers earn respect while having fun, and corporate sponsors receive tremendous free publicity.
Even compelling blue ocean strategies can fail without proper alignment. The Tata Nano demonstrates this risk. Its value proposition offered car safety and comfort at prices competitive with two-wheeled vehicles, and its profit proposition featured innovations in design and manufacturing that lowered costs. However, Tata failed to secure a critical people proposition with external stakeholders-the Singur community where manufacturing facilities were planned. Disputes over land leasing and compensation forced a massive facility relocation that dampened the Nano's initial success.
Similarly, the contrasting fates of Napster and Apple's iTunes illustrate the importance of strategic alignment. Despite attracting 80 million users, Napster failed because it didn't align its external people proposition with partners. Apple, conversely, created fully aligned strategy propositions, offering a compelling value proposition for buyers matched with a people proposition that won support from all five major music companies.
第 12 章
Renewing Blue Oceans and Avoiding Red Ocean Traps
Creating a blue ocean isn't a static achievement but a dynamic process. Eventually, imitators appear, and understanding the process of renewal is key to ensuring blue ocean creation becomes a repeatable organizational process.
Blue ocean strategies typically enjoy considerable sustainability due to multiple imitation barriers, including the alignment barrier (integrated system of value, profit, and people propositions), cognitive barriers (strategies that don't make sense in conventional terms), brand barriers (strong brand loyalty to innovators), and economic barriers (scale advantages, network effects, patents).
However, eventually, almost every blue ocean strategy will be imitated. To avoid falling into competition, companies must monitor their value curves and renew their blue oceans when convergence occurs. Salesforce.com exemplifies successful renewal, maintaining leadership in on-demand CRM for fifteen years by repeatedly breaking away from competitors-first with its web-based CRM solution, then with Force.com and AppExchange for customized applications, and later with Chatter for real-time collaboration.
For companies with diverse business portfolios, the dynamic pioneer-migrator-settler (PMS) map helps monitor and plan portfolio renewal. Apple exemplifies successful portfolio management through continuous renewal, launching new blue oceans as previous ones were imitated-from the colorful iMac in 1998, to the revolutionary iPod and iTunes, followed by the iPhone, app store, and iPad.
Despite efforts to clearly define blue ocean strategy, mental models often lead people to interpret the concept through old lenses that inadvertently trap them in red oceans. Common misconceptions include believing that blue ocean strategy is about being customer-led (when it's actually about noncustomers), venturing beyond your core business (when blue oceans can be created within existing core), or requiring new technologies (when many successful blue oceans involve no bleeding-edge technology).
Other traps include equating blue ocean strategy with being first to market (when it's about being first to get it right by linking innovation to value), confusing it with differentiation strategy (when it pursues differentiation and low cost simultaneously), or seeing it as synonymous with creative destruction (when it often creates new market space without displacing existing products).
By understanding these distinctions and applying the systematic frameworks of blue ocean strategy, organizations can break free from bloody competition and create uncontested market space where the possibilities are limited only by our collective imagination and will to act.
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