第1章
The Quiet Revolution: How Anarchism Challenges Our Understanding of Power
Ever wondered what it would be like to live in a world without rulers, where communities organize themselves through voluntary cooperation rather than coercion?
Colin Ward's "Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction" offers a compelling journey into this radical political philosophy that has captivated minds from Noam Chomsky to David Graeber.
Far from the bomb-throwing caricature that dominates popular imagination, anarchism represents a sophisticated tradition of thought that has influenced movements for social justice, environmental sustainability, and human freedom across centuries.
When Emma Goldman declared, "If I can't dance, I don't want to be part of your revolution," she captured anarchism's unique emphasis on living freedom now rather than postponing it for some distant future.
Ward's book has become required reading in progressive political science departments worldwide, offering a refreshingly accessible entry point to ideas that continue to shape resistance movements from Occupy Wall Street to climate justice activism.
第2章
Beyond Bombs and Chaos: Understanding Anarchism's Rich Intellectual Tradition
Anarchism, derived from the Greek 'anarkhia' meaning 'without ruler,' represents the ultimate projection of both liberalism and socialism.
It emerged partly as a response to the failures of the French Revolution, which began with liberatory ideals but ended with terror and Napoleon's empire.
What distinguishes anarchists from other revolutionaries is their unique argument that workers and peasants are inevitably betrayed by new political classes after revolutions, as these new rulers invariably re-establish centralized state power.
For anarchists, the state itself is the enemy because it protects the privileges of the powerful.
The anarchist tradition encompasses several distinct varieties: anarchist-communism advocates mutual control of resources by local communities; collectivist anarchism stresses individual possession of necessities while rejecting ownership of others' resources; anarcho-syndicalism focuses on organized workers taking over industry through general strikes; individualist anarchism emphasizes personal autonomy while rejecting capitalism; pacifist anarchism is based on anti-militarism and uncoerced goodwill.
Newer forms include green anarchism and anarcha-feminism.
What unites these diverse strands is their rejection of external authority in all forms.
Four major thinkers form the classical anarchist tradition.
William Godwin (1756-1836) first articulated the anarchist case against government, law, and state institutions in his 1793 work "Political Justice."
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-65) was the first to call himself an anarchist, famously declaring "Property is Theft" while also maintaining "Property is Freedom"-distinguishing between exploitative ownership and natural rights to one's home and tools.
Michael Bakunin (1814-76), known for his disputes with Marx, accurately predicted the outcomes of Marxist dictatorships, insisting that "socialism without freedom is slavery."
Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) gave anarchism scientific grounding through works like "Mutual Aid," which challenged competitive interpretations of Darwinism by demonstrating cooperation's importance for survival.
Beyond these key writers, anarchism has deep historical roots in popular uprisings throughout history-from slave revolts in the ancient world to peasant risings in medieval Europe, the Diggers in the English Revolution, and the Paris Commune of 1871.
What's remarkable is anarchism's resilience: it reemerges whenever authoritarian regimes collapse.
The anarchist press reappeared in Germany after Hitler, in Italy after Mussolini, in Spain after Franco-evidence of what anarchists see as the irrepressible human aspiration for self-organization and voluntary cooperation.
第3章
Revolutionary Moments: Anarchism in Historical Context
Throughout history, anarchists have played significant roles in revolutionary upheavals, typically helping to spark revolutions but becoming victims of the new regimes that follow.
From the English Revolution's Diggers and Levellers to the American and French revolutions that inspired Thomas Paine's observation that "government even in its best state is but a necessary evil," anarchist elements have consistently emerged in popular uprisings against authority.
The European revolutions of 1848 saw anarchists like Bakunin briefly flourish before facing imprisonment.
During the Paris Commune of 1871, Proudhon's federalist ideas shaped the Commune's manifesto calling for "the absolute autonomy of the Commune extended to all localities of France."
The Commune, though it included anarchist heroine Louise Michel, was brutally suppressed, foreshadowing the pattern of anarchist involvement in later revolutions.
In major 20th-century revolutions, anarchists were consistently betrayed by their revolutionary allies.
In Mexico, Ricardo Flores Magon influenced Emiliano Zapata's peasant revolution before being murdered in a U.S. prison in 1923.
During Russia's 1917 revolution, the Bolsheviks appropriated anarchist slogans like "All Power to the Soviets" while Ukrainian anarchist Nestor Makhno organized peasant land seizures, fighting both Bolsheviks and White forces.
When anarchists like Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman tried to reveal Lenin's betrayal of revolutionary ideals, they were rejected by the Western Left as "counter-revolutionary."
The Spanish Revolution of 1936 provided both inspiration and tragic irony for anarchist history.
As Franco's rebellion began, CNT members seized weapons and took control of factories, transport, and land.
Despite the revolution's promise, it faced overwhelming obstacles: Franco received military support from Mussolini and Hitler, while the Soviet Union's aid came at the terrible price of requiring anarchists to repudiate their revolutionary principles.
After Franco's victory in 1939, Spain endured decades of dictatorship.
Yet Spain also demonstrated Kropotkin's theories in practice-approximately three million people lived in collectivized communes across non-Franco territories, with workers managing factories and public services.
As Noam Chomsky noted, these remarkable social transformations were largely ignored by Western media, their significance only recognized decades later.
The Spanish anarchist experiment ended in bitter debate over the CNT's fatal compromise in joining government, violating anarchism's core opposition to political structures.
Yet anarchist ideals persisted, resurfacing in Hungarian and Polish uprisings in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, harbingers of the Soviet Union's eventual bloodless collapse.
Through all these revolutionary moments, anarchists remained "monotonously right" in their critique of authoritarian power.
第4章
Society Against the State: Rethinking Social Organization
Anarchists emphasize a crucial distinction between society and the state that has been rediscovered by political thinkers following the Soviet collapse.
Martin Buber contrasted the political principle (characterized by power, authority, hierarchy) with the social principle (visible in spontaneous human associations built around common needs).
The political principle maintains dominance through what Buber called the "political surplus"-the excess power governments maintain beyond what conditions require, resulting in "continuous diminution in social spontaneity."
Anarchists challenge the notion that social welfare originated from government action, pointing to Britain's vast network of 19th-century friendly societies and mutual aid organizations.
The NHS itself was inspired by the Tredegar Medical Society in Wales, which provided comprehensive healthcare through voluntary worker contributions.
Had this local self-taxation model been widely adopted, healthcare might not have become subject to central government financial policies.
Alternative approaches like the Peckham Experiment (a family health club with medical care) demonstrate possibilities beyond the "dreary polarity of public bureaucracy and private profit."
Despite claims that modern mobility makes local control obsolete, anarchists distinguish between "communities of propinquity" and "communities of interest."
Local concerns remain vital at different life stages, particularly around schools, health centers, and community facilities.
The rise of professional managers as "unassailable masters" across institutions has created resentment among both professionals and workers, leading some management theorists to borrow anarchist concepts.
Anarchists propose four principles for organizations: they should be voluntary, functional, temporary, and small-limiting the bureaucratizing tendencies that develop in permanent institutions.
Unlike the failed promises of state socialism, modern anarchists reject simple millenarianism, echoing Alexander Herzen's 1847 critique of progress that sacrifices present generations for a distant future: "A goal which is infinitely remote is not a goal at all, it is a deception."
Socialism in the 20th century repeatedly promised "jam tomorrow" that never materialized, leading anarchists to insist that new generations must evolve their own immediate social aims structured around non-state forms of organization.
第5章
Beyond Borders and Dogmas: Anarchist Responses to Nationalism and Fundamentalism
Anarchists claim that popular self-organization could provide new forms of social organization to replace state bureaucracy, but critics dismiss anarchism as primitive and irrelevant to modern nation-states with their intense hostilities and rivalries.
The anarchist response points to the poisonous legacy of European imperialism, whose "Divide and Rule" approach created most of today's intractable global disputes.
Nationalist movements inherently tend toward extremism, xenophobia and historical falsification to serve political agendas.
The classical anarchist position on religion came from Bakunin's "God and the State" (1871), which viewed religious belief as an escape from misery alongside alcohol, with social revolution as the only real alternative.
Like Marx, who called religion the "opium of the people," Bakunin saw faith as useful to the powerful for keeping people submissive.
However, the 19th century predictions that religion would fade have proven wrong.
Fundamentalism-originally describing literal Biblical interpretation in American Christianity but now applied to extremist movements in all major religions-threatens both secular states and individual freedoms.
Nicolas Walter warned that fundamentalists of all faiths use "assassination and terror all over the world to suppress freedom and discussion."
Government suppression of religion has repeatedly failed, as seen in the Soviet Union, Turkey, Iran, Egypt, and Algeria.
Anarchists like Rudolf Rocker advocated respecting believers while maintaining secular principles, recognizing that the underlying issues often involve ethnic nationalism and the legacy of Western imperialism's humiliation of local cultures.
第6章
Justice Without Punishment: Anarchist Approaches to Crime and Work
From the fall of the Bastille in 1789 to Stalin's death in 1953, anarchists provided an impressive literature on the defects of the penal system through personal experience.
Kropotkin, who coined the phrase "prisons are the universities of crime," argued that cooperative rather than competitive societies would suffer less from antisocial activity.
He advocated treating criminals with "brotherly care" and "equality" rather than punishment.
Despite early reform efforts, the late 20th century saw a dramatic reversal in penal policy.
While the Netherlands reduced imprisonment rates to 17 per 100,000 by 1975, countries like the United States moved toward mass incarceration.
By 2000, U.S. prisons held two million inmates-the highest proportion in history-with African-American men facing a 1-in-4 chance of imprisonment compared to 1-in-23 for white men.
The only area gaining support for decriminalization is drug policy, where even law enforcement officials acknowledge the failure of criminalization.
Anarchist Errico Malatesta presciently argued in 1920 for making drugs available at cost price while launching educational campaigns about their dangers-noting that prohibition merely creates profitable black markets while failing to address underlying social causes.
Early anarchists were deeply connected to radical labor movements, particularly through anarcho-syndicalism, which saw local industrial struggles as steps toward a general strike that would collapse capitalism and allow workers to take control.
Organizations like France's CGT, Spain's CNT, and America's IWW became mass movements.
However, globalization has undermined worker power, as employers can simply threaten to move production overseas.
Meanwhile, Kropotkin observed that electricity and modern transportation were already decentralizing production in 1899, making it possible to combine brain work and manual work-his industrial ideal.
Today, anarchists typically work in small-scale or informal economies, where studies show workers find greater satisfaction through autonomy.
Even small business owners often reject the capitalist ethic, preferring to provide a "service" rather than expand their businesses, valuing personal relationships over growth.
第7章
Learning Freedom: Education as Liberation
Anarchists have consistently prioritized educational principles and experiments.
William Godwin's 1783 school prospectus criticized "modern education" for corrupting youth through "rigid slavery" and "unintelligible jargon."
His later book The Enquirer (1797) declared "the true object of education is the generation of happiness" and asserted children's rights against adult authority.
Godwin outlined three fundamental objections to national education: first, public establishments perpetuate prejudice and resist change; second, education imposed from outside fails because "whatever each man does for himself is done well; whatever his neighbors or his country undertake to do for him is done ill"; and third, national education inevitably aligns with national government, becoming "a powerful machine under the direction of an ambitious agent" that perpetuates governmental interests.
By the 1860s, working-class private schools were educating about one-third of all working-class children.
Parents preferred these schools because they were small, close to home, informal, tolerant of irregular attendance, not segregated by age and sex, used individual teaching methods, and crucially, were controlled by the local community rather than imposed by alien authorities.
Philip Gardner's research revealed these schools achieved exactly what parents wanted: quick results in basic skills, no wasted time on religious studies, and a genuinely alternative approach to learning.
Anarchist educational thinkers included Leo Tolstoy with his school at Yasnaya Polyana and Francesco Ferrer, founder of the secular, rationalist "Modern School" movement.
Ferrer opened his first school in Barcelona in 1901, inspiring emulators worldwide and arousing church enmity.
Though executed in 1909 after being wrongly blamed for demonstrations, his educational approach flourished-after the 1936 revolution, at least 60,000 Catalan children attended Ferrer schools.
While progressive education has influenced every school, changing the teacher's role from fearsome martinet to friendly guide and eliminating corporal punishment, libertarian education goes further by advocating voluntary rather than compulsory attendance.
A.S.
Neill of Summerhill School criticized "high-minded and manipulative progressives" who limited freedom through their systems.
Despite opposition from authoritarians, the anarchist approach has been more influential in education than most other fields.
第8章
The Individual and the Collective: American Anarchist Traditions
For a century, anarchists have used "libertarian" as a synonym for "anarchist," though recently American free-market philosophers have appropriated the term.
The anarchist individualist tradition differs significantly from these modern libertarians of the Right, who "despise the state because it hinders the freedom of property," while "Left libertarians condemn the state because it is a bastion of property."
The American anarchist individualist tradition predated the immigrant anarchist movements and included remarkable innovators like Josiah Warren, who established the Time Store in Cincinnati where customers exchanged "labour notes" for goods, and created cooperative villages like Utopia and Modern Times.
Lysander Spooner advocated for self-employed individuals with equal credit access and argued that refusing to support a government one never consented to wasn't treason.
Henry David Thoreau, America's most individual libertarian, wrote "Walden" about his self-sufficient life and penned the influential essay "On the duty of civil disobedience" (1849).
Though initially ignored, his ideas on non-cooperation with evil systems later influenced Tolstoy, Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr.
Another notable individualist, Randolph Bourne, observed during World War I that "War is the health of the state," recognizing how governments manufacture and manipulate public opinion to achieve unity of purpose.
In the 1970s, a different strain of American libertarianism emerged from academia through works like Wolff's "In Defense of Anarchism" and Rothbard's "For a New Liberty."
These writers provided the ideological foundation for right-wing politics in America and Britain's "rolling back the frontiers of the State."
However, this libertarian right largely ignores economic inequality-where 10% of Americans possess 85% of the nation's wealth and benefit from welfare cuts.
Most anarchists prefer to commemorate a richer heritage of American dissent from Thoreau to Emma Goldman to Paul Goodman, who valued autonomy over abstract freedom, noting that "the habit of direct action is perhaps identical with the habit of being free."
第9章
Small Victories: The Quiet Revolutions of Everyday Life
Despite the gulf between anarchist aspirations and 20th century reality, many small revolutions have transformed society in ways anarchists envisioned.
As Dwight Macdonald wrote, the revolutionary alternative isn't collectivized property but "anarchist decentralization that will break up mass society into small communities where individuals can live together as variegated human beings."
Several quiet revolutions have already transformed society.
The revolution in dress eliminated visible class distinctions in clothing.
The women's movement, pioneered by anarchists like Emma Goldman, rejected male dominance and fought for women's control over their bodies and lives.
"Free unions" outside state-sanctioned marriage became common, eliminating the stigma of illegitimacy.
Alex Comfort, anarchist physician and author of "The Joy of Sex," argued that sexual freedom naturally leads to broader political awareness and resistance to authoritarianism.
The 20th century saw dramatic changes in how adults treat children.
The punitive parenting common a century ago has largely disappeared.
Similarly, schools abandoned corporal punishment, though this created new challenges for maintaining classroom order.
Other irreversible changes include the decriminalization of homosexuality and the abolition of capital punishment in Britain in 1965.
The quiet revolution became louder when anarchists joined with anti-capitalist protesters using the Internet to organize demonstrations against global financial institutions.
In 1998, protesters defeated the Multilateral Agreement on Investment, which would have granted corporations the right to sue countries whose laws restricted profit-making.
After the treaty was leaked online, public pressure and demonstrations forced global leaders to abandon negotiations.
This pattern continued at Seattle in 1999, where WTO talks collapsed amid massive protests.
However, police responses grew increasingly violent, culminating in shootings at Gothenburg in 2001 and a protester's death in Genoa, prompting anarchists to reconsider their strategies of resistance.
第10章
Reimagining Europe: The Federalist Alternative to Nation-States
Contrary to criticisms that anarchism only suits isolated villages, major anarchist thinkers like Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin developed sophisticated federalist ideas that anticipated modern debates on European unity.
While 19th century history celebrated the unification of nations like Germany and Italy, these anarchists warned that centralized nation-states would lead to conquest, war and tyranny.
Proudhon argued that Italy was "federal by the constitution of her territory; by the diversity of her inhabitants; in the nature of her genius; in her mores; in her history."
He warned that centralization creates "a perpetual temptation to the executive power, a perpetual threat to the people's liberties."
Proudhon understood that when people are addressed as members of distinct communities with real solidarity, they respond responsibly; when addressed as an undifferentiated mass, they enable tyranny.
Bakunin foresaw the horrors of world wars and centralized Marxism.
At the 1867 League for Peace and Freedom congress, he advocated for the United States of Europe, arguing that existing states must be replaced by regions because centralized, bureaucratic states could never genuinely join an international federation.
He envisioned "free federation of individuals into communes, communes into provinces, provinces into nations," while emphasizing the right of secession as fundamental to true federalism.
Kropotkin's experiences in the Russian Empire showed him how central administration destroyed local conditions through ignorance and corruption.
In Switzerland, he discovered the self-governing watchmakers of the Jura hills-a community of self-employed craftsmen operating without authority from above-which became his model for societal transformation.
In 1920, Kropotkin predicted that Imperial Russia would never be revived, foreseeing instead "a federation of independent units" including Finland, the Baltic provinces, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, and Siberia-a vision that proved remarkably prescient after 70 years of Soviet rule.
The 19th-century anarchist thinkers were a century ahead in warning Europeans about the consequences of rejecting regionalism and federalism.
After disastrous 20th-century experiences, European leaders have moved toward supranational entities, facing the choice between a Europe of States or a Europe of Regions.
The European "subsidiarity" doctrine-that governmental decisions should be taken at the lowest possible level-pays tribute to Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin's ideas.
第11章
Green Anarchism: Ecological Thinking and Sustainable Futures
Kropotkin's emphasis on small-scale decentralized industry and intensive horticulture inspired early environmentalists.
By 1918, he recognized resource limitations, noting "these needs are increasing and the energies are not inexhaustible"-an early acknowledgment of growth limits.
Today's environmental activists face competing priorities while capitalism exploits unprotected labor markets and environments worldwide, describing this as "consumer sovereignty" to evade responsibility for exploitation of poor people and weak economies.
Environmental movements in wealthy countries sometimes overlook issues facing the poor.
Amartya Sen noted the paradox that "In the poor world the poor are thin and the rich are fat.
In the rich world the rich are thin and the poor are fat."
His theory of "entitlements" explains how poverty determines food access in all societies.
Any environmental discussion must begin with this reality of malnutrition amid plenty.
Kropotkin's century-old claim that Britain could feed itself seemed absurd but has proven prescient.
Urban Agriculture Network president Jac Smit notes that Chinese cities grow 90% of their vegetables locally, and even Hong Kong-the world's densest large city-produces two-thirds of its poultry and nearly half its vegetables within its boundaries.
Singapore's "agro-technology parks" demonstrate that urban agriculture can provide up to eight food energy units for every fossil fuel unit consumed, while rural agriculture often requires eight fossil fuel units to produce one food energy unit.
Modern food distribution systems depend entirely on cheap energy.
Between 1978 and 1991, shopping trips increased by 28% and travel distances by 60% due to centralized distribution systems.
The "food-miles" issue has worsened as retailers source globally for the cheapest suppliers, regardless of environmental impact.
This global food trade contributes more to climate change than household energy use, as noted by Professor John Houghton, who observed the absurdity of eating imported new potatoes that "I could have grown in my own back garden."
Murray Bookchin linked environmental concerns with America's anarchist tradition, seeking to redeem "the oldest American dream, dating back to Puritan times, which stresses community, decentralisation, self-sufficiency, mutual aid and face-to-face democracy."
He challenged "society with its vast, hierarchical, sexist, class-ruled, state apparatus and militaristic history," insisting that ecological viability is incompatible with capitalism's demand for expanding markets through manufactured wants and built-in obsolescence.
While mainstream society pursues "MORE!"-greater convenience, comfort, personal space, and mobility-environmental thinkers believe that as conditions worsen, "Deep Greens" will demonstrate how to reconcile modernity and sustainability, "visibly having a good time: comfortable, with varied lives and less stress, healthy and fit, having rediscovered the elementary virtues of restraint and balance."
A society that accepts 21st century environmental imperatives will inevitably reinvent anarchism as a response.
