Kapitel 1
The Art of Getting What You Want: How Negotiation Shapes Our Lives
In a world where interactions are constant, negotiation is the invisible thread weaving through our daily experiences. Herb Cohen's groundbreaking work "You Can Negotiate Anything" isn't just another business manual-it's a philosophical framework for understanding human relations. The book has sold over 1.5 million copies and remains a favorite of business titans like Warren Buffett, who reportedly keeps multiple copies in his office to give to visitors. When former FBI hostage negotiator Chris Voss was asked about his influences, he immediately cited Cohen's work as foundational. What makes this book so powerful? Perhaps it's the universal truth at its core: every interaction in life-from convincing your child to eat vegetables to securing a million-dollar business deal-follows the same fundamental principles of negotiation.
Negotiation isn't some specialized skill reserved for diplomats and car salespeople-it's the very fabric of human interaction. Your world is essentially a giant negotiating table, and you're constantly participating whether you realize it or not. We negotiate with everyone: spouses about vacation plans, children about bedtime, friends about restaurant choices, bosses about deadlines, and customers about prices.
What exactly constitutes negotiation? It's using information and power to affect behavior within what Cohen calls a "web of tension." In every negotiation worldwide, three crucial elements are always present: information, time, and power. Of these, power is particularly significant-it's the capacity to get things done and exercise control. The fascinating thing about power is that it's based entirely on perception. If you believe you have power, you do.
Even children instinctively understand negotiation. Cohen describes how his nine-year-old son, who hated restaurants, negotiated his way from sitting under the table to standing on a chair, eventually embarrassing his parents by shouting "This is a crummy restaurant!"-successfully ensuring they'd never take him to restaurants again. The child intuitively used information and power to affect his parents' behavior.
At work, the dynamics are similar but with higher stakes. Technical experts often struggle not because their ideas lack merit, but because they lack the negotiating skills to sell those ideas effectively. Meanwhile, wise bosses negotiate for employee commitment rather than demanding what Cohen calls "malicious obedience"-the bare minimum effort required to avoid punishment.
The most powerful negotiators throughout history understood these principles. Jesus Christ and Socrates were master negotiators-they gathered information through questions, had clear objectives, took calculated risks, and used collaborative approaches that ultimately changed value systems worldwide. Their influence persists millennia later because they understood that true negotiation isn't about manipulation but about addressing fundamental human needs.
Kapitel 2
Challenging Assumptions: The Myth of Non-Negotiability
One of the most limiting beliefs we hold is that certain things are simply "non-negotiable." The power of legitimacy is particularly compelling-we automatically comply with signs, printed rules, and "standard forms" without questioning them. While only about 55% of Americans vote in good elections, 90-95% of Holiday Inn guests check out by the posted 1 PM checkout time without questioning it. This explains why a completely empty hotel lobby at 12:30 PM can transform into a 28-person checkout line at exactly 1:00 PM.
When questioned about why they're standing in line, guests simply respond "I read it on my door." This same power applies when bosses deny raises by pointing to "pay grades" on printed cards, or when people sign unfavorable leases because they're "standard forms" with form numbers. Even the phrase "the legal people won't approve of any changes" carries weight despite the legal department not even knowing about potential changes.
The price on a refrigerator at Sears isn't sacred-it resulted from negotiation between marketing people (who wanted $450), financial people (who wanted $540), and advertising people (who suggested $499.95). Unlike the Ten Commandments, which weren't negotiated, most prices and policies can be challenged.
Whether you choose to negotiate should depend on three questions: Are you comfortable negotiating in this situation? Will negotiating meet your needs? Is the expenditure of energy and time worth the potential benefits? You have the freedom to choose your attitude and the ability to shape outcomes-you can play a greater role in improving your lifestyle than you might think.
To be an effective negotiator, you must break free from precedent, challenge your assumptions, raise your aspiration level, and increase your expectations. Don't let your limited experience represent universal truths-many of your assumptions are false.
When negotiating for something like a refrigerator priced beyond your budget, approach the situation strategically. Don't see yourself as someone buying a refrigerator, but as someone selling money. Generate competition for your money by informing the salesman that rival outlets offer comparable models at lower prices, or point out that the same refrigerator costs less in the store's own catalog.
Express dissatisfaction with product features to justify price reductions. Mention that the colors don't match your "psychedelic kitchen," question the built-in icemaker your child with a "chronic sore throat" can't use, or note the door swings from the wrong side for your "right-handed family." Ask when the item will go on sale or if you missed a recent sale.
The floor-model technique is particularly effective-point out real or imagined "multiple blemi" (blemishes) or request an "internal-trauma discount" (ITD) for wear-and-tear not visible to the naked eye. Cohen describes this as asking for a discount because the floor model has suffered from internal stress after being handled by countless customers-like "a street walker who's been around the block several times."
Kapitel 3
Power Dynamics: The Perception of Control
Power is the capacity to get things done-the ability to move from your current situation to your objective. Though often viewed negatively because it can imply domination, power itself is neutral like electricity-neither good nor bad. People object to power only when it's used manipulatively or toward corrupt ends.
The fascinating thing about power is that it's based entirely on perception-you have power if you believe you have it and can convey that self-confidence to others. Even a prisoner in solitary confinement can exercise power by understanding his options and taking calculated risks, as illustrated by the prisoner who threatened self-harm to get a cigarette from a guard.
Several key sources of power exist in negotiation:
The power of competition: When you create competition for something you possess-whether money as a consumer or products as a seller-what you have increases in value. This explains why it's easier to get a job when you already have one-employers value what others want.
The power of legitimacy: People tend to accept printed words, documents, and signs without question. The wise negotiator both uses legitimacy when advantageous and challenges it when necessary.
The power of risk-taking: Successful negotiation requires calculated risk-taking-mixing courage with common sense. When you feel you must have something, you always pay top dollar. The key is taking moderate risks you can afford without being devastated by adverse consequences.
The power of commitment: Getting others committed to your cause spreads risk and magnifies your negotiating power. Involvement begets commitment, and commitment begets power.
The power of expertise: When others perceive you have specialized knowledge they lack, they treat you with unusual respect. Even the egotistical General Patton humbly accepted advice from his flagship's navigator during WWII because the navigator possessed expertise Patton didn't have.
The power of knowing needs: In all negotiations, there are two things being bargained for: the stated demands and the real needs, which are rarely verbalized. Understanding someone's true needs gives you tremendous power.
The power of investment: When people invest time, money, or energy in a negotiation, they become increasingly willing to compromise rather than lose their investment.
The power of identification: People maximize their negotiating ability when others identify with them. We choose businesses not just for price or quality, but because of our connection with the people there.
The magic phrase "What if?" opens negotiation possibilities: "What if I buy four refrigerators?" "What if I take it home myself?" "What if I buy additional appliances?" While you may not get exactly what you want, nine times out of ten, these questions prompt favorable counter-offers.
For ultimatums to work, invest the salesman's time first-spend multiple days examining every model with family members before finally revealing your budget constraints. After six hours invested in you over several days, the salesman will likely accept your offer rather than lose the sale entirely.
Kapitel 4
Time and Information: The Hidden Dimensions of Negotiation
Time marches on at the same rate for everyone, but understanding how it affects negotiation gives you an edge. Most people view negotiation as an event with a definite beginning and ending-a fixed timeframe with a deadline. In virtually every negotiation, concessions happen as close to the deadline as possible, with agreements typically occurring at or beyond the deadline.
When one party knows the other's deadline but not vice versa, they gain tremendous advantage. As the deadline approaches, the party feeling time pressure makes concessions while the other holds firm. This principle is illustrated by Cohen's disastrous negotiation in Tokyo, where Japanese hosts knew his departure date but he didn't know theirs. They deliberately delayed substantive discussions until his final day, forcing him to make concessions rather than return empty-handed-what his superiors called "the first great Japanese victory since Pearl Harbor."
Similarly, during Vietnam peace negotiations, North Vietnamese rented a villa with a two-year lease while American negotiators took hotel rooms week-to-week, signaling their different time perspectives. Deadlines are more flexible than most realize and typically self-imposed. Smart negotiators analyze deadlines by asking what happens if they exceed them, weighing potential penalties against benefits.
Information is the heart of successful negotiation, yet we often fail to gather adequate data because we mistakenly view negotiations as isolated events rather than ongoing processes. During actual negotiation events, experienced parties typically conceal their true interests, needs, and priorities, making it difficult to obtain crucial information.
The key is starting early, gathering information well before formal confrontation begins. People are far more forthcoming before they recognize they're in negotiation mode. Rather than appearing intimidating or flawless, effective information gatherers present themselves as humble, confused, and even defenseless-encouraging others to help with information and advice.
This approach involves listening more than talking, asking questions even when you think you know the answers, and connecting with anyone associated with your negotiating counterpart-from secretaries to past customers-who might provide valuable insights.
Information gathering requires giving selective information in return, creating mutual risk-taking and trust. During negotiations, effective listening means not just hearing words but noticing omissions and interpreting cues-unintentional slips, verbal contradictions, and body language patterns.
The "nibble" technique works on the principle of invested time. After spending hours having a salesman help you try on suits, measuring lapels and discussing styles, you finally select one. Then, just as the tailor is making alterations and the salesman is writing up the sale, you casually ask, "And what kind of tie will you be throwing in free?" The salesman, having invested three and a half hours, will likely concede rather than lose his commission.
Contrary to the stereotypical executive who always projects confidence, admitting you need help can be a powerful negotiation tactic. By saying "I dunno... help me!" you humanize yourself and encourage the other party to invest time in the situation, ultimately putting you in control.
Kapitel 5
The Soviet Style: Competitive Win-Lose Negotiation
Negotiation styles exist on a continuum between competitive ("I win, you lose") and collaborative ("both of us can win") approaches. Understanding these different styles is crucial for adapting your strategy appropriately.
The competitive Win-Lose negotiator sees life as a constant battle, seeking victory regardless of others' needs. Cohen calls this the "Soviet style"-not based on nationality but on a tactical approach where one party tries to triumph over their opponent through intimidation or manipulation.
When negotiating with Soviet-style negotiators, you face representatives who lack discretionary authority to make concessions-they must always consult with absent superiors. This creates a situation where you have authority to make deals while they only offer pleasantries. After spending considerable time away from home, you feel compelled to make progress and end up bidding against yourself.
Car dealers employ similar tactics by limiting their salespeople's authority, forcing them to "check with the manager"-who may not even exist, like the mythical person in "the shack" during a freezing Chicago winter.
Soviet-style negotiators strategically use emotional outbursts to provoke, distract, or intimidate opponents. Walking out is particularly effective-when someone abruptly leaves a negotiation, it creates anxiety and uncertainty for those left behind. Veiled threats are another powerful tactic that leverages imagination-what people fear might happen is always more frightening than specific threats.
While Western diplomats view negotiations as compromise between conflicting positions, Soviet-style negotiators see them as struggles to be won-figurative street fights. When opponents follow gentlemanly rules, they question their adversary's actual strength.
When Americans make first concessions to break stalemates, expecting reciprocity and respect, Soviet-style negotiators interpret this as weakness. This misunderstanding proved costly during Korean War armistice negotiations when U.N. negotiators made a major concession that revealed their fallback position, hardening North Korean resolve rather than encouraging reciprocity.
For Soviet tactics to succeed, three criteria must exist: no continuing relationship (a one-shot transaction), no remorse afterward (believing ends justify means), and an unaware victim. When facing such tactics, you can: walk away, beat them at their own game, or transform the relationship into a collaborative encounter.
Like politics and poker, negotiation success comes not just from holding a strong hand but from analyzing the total situation. To influence outcomes, you must realistically analyze both your position and the other side's position through three interrelated variables: power, time, and information.
Kapitel 6
The Collaborative Approach: Win-Win Negotiation
In collaborative Win-Win negotiation, the goal shifts from defeating opponents to solving problems together. This approach recognizes that most negotiations default to adversarial approaches because discussions center on money-a precise, quantifiable measure that serves as feedback, scorekeeper, and value indicator. But this narrow focus often prevents more creative solutions.
People have multiple needs beyond money, and satisfying only financial demands won't make them happy. The negotiation process-tone, approach, and behavior-can itself meet important needs beyond the material exchange.
To achieve collaborative outcomes, negotiators should use what Cohen calls a "lubricant demeanor"-coming on like velvet rather than sandpaper, showing empathy, avoiding absolutes, and seeing problems from the other's perspective. This approach transforms adversaries into allies seeking mutual solutions.
When people see themselves as adversaries, they communicate at arm's length through demands and ultimatums while hoarding information and concealing their true needs. This adversarial climate makes satisfying mutual needs nearly impossible.
However, by recognizing human uniqueness, negotiators can establish candor and trust, exchanging attitudes, feelings, and needs that lead to creative win-win solutions. The Howard Hughes-Jane Russell contract dispute illustrates this perfectly. When Russell demanded her $1 million payment and Hughes claimed liquidity problems, they initially appeared deadlocked.
By shifting from adversaries to collaborators, they transformed the contract into a twenty-year arrangement of $50,000 annually. Hughes solved his cash flow problem while Russell gained tax advantages and financial security. Both parties won by reshaping the agreement to address their different needs rather than remaining locked in positional bargaining.
The collaborative Win-Win negotiation style emphasizes three crucial activities: building trust, gaining commitment, and managing opposition. This approach isn't about slick maneuvers but developing genuine relationships where both sides win by finding what the other side wants and showing them how to get it while you get what you want.
Trust is the foundation of collaborative negotiation. The more trust you place in others, especially in continuing relationships, the more they'll justify your faith. Starting suspicious only fulfills negative prophecies.
Trust must be built during two key timeframes: the process stage and the formal event. The process stage precedes the formal negotiation event and provides critical lead time. During this period, attitudes form, confidence establishes, and expectations develop. Use this time to seed trust by addressing differences in experience, information, and roles before positions harden.
Kapitel 7
Building Trust and Managing Opposition
When trust is established before the formal event, parties approach negotiation as problem-solvers rather than gladiators. Begin by getting agreement on a positive goal statement like "fashioning a fair solution everyone can live with." Focus on ends rather than means-discussing general goals creates agreement while debating specific alternatives creates polarization.
This approach reduces anxiety, defuses hostility, and encourages sharing of facts and needs. As illustrated by the family vacation dilemma in Ames, Iowa, focusing on each person's underlying needs rather than their preferred destinations allows creative solutions to emerge where everyone can win.
Even without preparation time, trust can be established during the negotiation itself. When buying electronic equipment with limited time, Cohen built rapport with the store owner through friendly conversation, learned about his business challenges with the new shopping center, and positioned himself as a potential repeat customer. By understanding the owner's needs (cash flow problems, desire for loyal customers), showing trust in his expertise, and suggesting a cash payment, he secured a fair price on both items.
No individual exists in isolation. Everyone you negotiate with is influenced by others around them-bankers, bosses, and organizations that reinforce their current positions. When trying to persuade someone who seems stubborn, the solution often lies in identifying who's important to them and gaining those people's commitment to your idea.
Everyone exists within a web of relationships that shapes their decisions. If you can sway someone's organization, you can divert them from their original course. As Cohen learned when his wife effectively "bought" a house by securing commitment from their entire social network before he could object, "when the body moves, the head is inclined to follow."
Opposition is essential to growth and progress. In negotiation, there are two types of opponents: idea opponents and visceral opponents.
With idea opponents, you can achieve synergistic results through collaborative problem-solving. Instead of butting heads over fixed positions (like a $50,000 versus $30,000 salary negotiation), repackage the agreement to meet both parties' needs. For example, a $30,000 salary might be supplemented with benefits like company car, expense account, profit sharing, and other perks that provide equivalent value while giving the employer more flexibility.
Visceral opponents are emotional adversaries who disagree with you as a person, not just your ideas. They attribute sinister motives to your position, making creative problem-solving impossible. These opponents are created when you attack someone's "face"-their public persona or how they want to be seen by others. While private criticism might be forgiven, public humiliation creates lasting enemies.
To avoid creating visceral opponents, remember two rules: never forget the power of your attitude ("care, but don't care that much"), and never judge the actions and motives of others. Since you can't see into someone's heart or mind, judging information too quickly causes speakers to withdraw.
Kapitel 8
Telephone Negotiations: Strategic Advantages and Pitfalls
The telephone, despite its innocuous appearance, is a powerful negotiation tool with unique characteristics. Phone negotiations create more misunderstandings due to lack of visual feedback and make it easier to say "no" than face-to-face interactions. They're quicker but riskier, fostering competitive rather than collaborative outcomes.
The caller holds significant advantages in telephone negotiations. Their call is rarely impulsive but rather a calculated strategic choice. They've typically prepared extensively-sitting in a quiet space with reference materials, calculators, computers, and carefully planned arguments. The recipient, meanwhile, is caught unprepared-searching for the phone under papers, lacking reference materials, distracted by office activity, and unable to locate files or even writing implements.
To negotiate effectively by phone:
1. Be the caller, not the callee: Take initiative by making calls rather than receiving them.
2. Plan and prepare: Before making any call, determine your specific objective and prepare thoroughly.
3. Have a graceful exit: Always have a ready excuse to end calls that turn disadvantageous.
4. Discipline yourself to listen: Monitor your "listen-versus-talk ratio" and employ strategic silence.
5. Write the memorandum of agreement: The person who writes this document gains tremendous advantages.
When dealing with bureaucracies, follow a systematic approach to get results. Start by calling the nearest office, securing a commitment with a deadline, following up with a letter, and checking progress before the deadline. If necessary, visit in person, being polite but ensuring others know about your situation.
If these steps fail, methodically move up the organizational hierarchy. Higher-level officials understand that rules have exceptions, see the bigger picture, and have authority to make decisions. Always determine if the person you're dealing with has actual authority to help you by asking directly, "Can you remedy this situation?"
When dealing with an IRS audit, stand firm on matters of judgment (like charitable contributions) while conceding on factual errors. If the auditor disagrees, appeal to higher authorities-first an IRS examiner, then the Regional Director of Appeals, and finally to court if necessary.
With hardware stores that don't accept checks, move past the clerk to speak directly with the owner, who has the power to override policy, especially after you've selected merchandise. For helping a child struggling in math class, meet the teacher in person rather than by phone, and if unsuccessful, move up the school hierarchy to the superintendent.
Kapitel 9
The Human Element: Personalizing Negotiations
In our modern world, people often feel depersonalized-mere statistics in an increasingly complex and impersonal society. To negotiate effectively, never allow yourself to be seen as "a statistic, a thing, a commodity, or an article of commerce." By presenting yourself as a unique, vulnerable human being, you tap into others' natural empathy.
When personalizing situations, focus on making human connections rather than abstract appeals. For apartment heating problems, don't complain aggressively but personalize the issue-find the absentee landlord, visit unexpectedly on Sunday when family is present, and present your situation calmly: "I know you aren't aware of it because you wouldn't tolerate it." This transforms you from faceless "apartment 203" into a person with human needs.
Two key principles emerge: people easily mistreat others they don't see in personal terms, and you should never become a "bloodless statistic." Cohen contrasts mayors Richard Daley and John Lindsay-Lindsay negotiated on behalf of impersonal "New York City" while Daley created personal connections: "John... you told me you were gonna do this. I was counting on you." This personalization explains why both business and labor believed Daley was on their side.
In our modern world, people often feel depersonalized-mere statistics in an increasingly complex and impersonal society. To negotiate effectively, never allow yourself to be seen as "a statistic, a thing, a commodity, or an article of commerce." By presenting yourself as a unique, vulnerable human being, you tap into others' natural empathy.
When personalizing situations, focus on making human connections rather than abstract appeals. For apartment heating problems, don't complain aggressively but personalize the issue-find the absentee landlord, visit unexpectedly on Sunday when family is present, and present your situation calmly: "I know you aren't aware of it because you wouldn't tolerate it." This transforms you from faceless "apartment 203" into a person with human needs.
Two key principles emerge: people easily mistreat others they don't see in personal terms, and you should never become a "bloodless statistic." Cohen contrasts mayors Richard Daley and John Lindsay-Lindsay negotiated on behalf of impersonal "New York City" while Daley created personal connections: "John... you told me you were gonna do this. I was counting on you." This personalization explains why both business and labor believed Daley was on their side.
Kapitel 10
Navigating Bureaucracies: Moving Up the Hierarchy
When dealing with bureaucracies, follow a systematic approach to get results. Start by calling the nearest office, securing a commitment with a deadline, following up with a letter, and checking progress before the deadline. If necessary, visit in person, being polite but ensuring others know about your situation.
If these steps fail, methodically move up the organizational hierarchy. Higher-level officials understand that rules have exceptions, see the bigger picture, and have authority to make decisions. Always determine if the person you're dealing with has actual authority to help you by asking directly, "Can you remedy this situation?"
When dealing with an IRS audit, stand firm on matters of judgment (like charitable contributions) while conceding on factual errors. If the auditor disagrees, appeal to higher authorities-first an IRS examiner, then the Regional Director of Appeals, and finally to court if necessary.
With hardware stores that don't accept checks, move past the clerk to speak directly with the owner, who has the power to override policy, especially after you've selected merchandise. For helping a child struggling in math class, meet the teacher in person rather than by phone, and if unsuccessful, move up the school hierarchy to the superintendent.
In our modern world, people often feel depersonalized-mere statistics in an increasingly complex and impersonal society. To negotiate effectively, never allow yourself to be seen as "a statistic, a thing, a commodity, or an article of commerce." By presenting yourself as a unique, vulnerable human being, you tap into others' natural empathy.
When personalizing situations, focus on making human connections rather than abstract appeals. For apartment heating problems, don't complain aggressively but personalize the issue-find the absentee landlord, visit unexpectedly on Sunday when family is present, and present your situation calmly: "I know you aren't aware of it because you wouldn't tolerate it." This transforms you from faceless "apartment 203" into a person with human needs.
Kapitel 11
Strategic Negotiation Tactics for Everyday Situations
When negotiating for something like a refrigerator priced beyond your budget, approach the situation strategically. Don't see yourself as someone buying a refrigerator, but as someone selling money. Generate competition for your money by informing the salesman that rival outlets offer comparable models at lower prices, or point out that the same refrigerator costs less in the store's own catalog.
Express dissatisfaction with product features to justify price reductions. Mention that the colors don't match your "psychedelic kitchen," question the built-in icemaker your child with a "chronic sore throat" can't use, or note the door swings from the wrong side for your "right-handed family." Ask when the item will go on sale or if you missed a recent sale.
The floor-model technique is particularly effective-point out real or imagined "multiple blemi" (blemishes) or request an "internal-trauma discount" (ITD) for wear-and-tear not visible to the naked eye. Cohen describes this as asking for a discount because the floor model has suffered from internal stress after being handled by countless customers-like "a street walker who's been around the block several times."
The magic phrase "What if?" opens negotiation possibilities: "What if I buy four refrigerators?" "What if I take it home myself?" "What if I buy additional appliances?" While you may not get exactly what you want, nine times out of ten, these questions prompt favorable counter-offers.
For ultimatums to work, invest the salesman's time first-spend multiple days examining every model with family members before finally revealing your budget constraints. After six hours invested in you over several days, the salesman will likely accept your offer rather than lose the sale entirely.
The "nibble" works on the same principle. After spending hours having a salesman help you try on suits, measuring lapels and discussing styles, you finally select one. Then, just as the tailor is making alterations and the salesman is writing up the sale, you casually ask, "And what kind of tie will you be throwing in free?" The salesman, having invested three and a half hours, will likely concede rather than lose his commission.
Contrary to the stereotypical executive who always projects confidence, admitting you need help can be a powerful negotiation tactic. By saying "I dunno... help me!" you humanize yourself and encourage the other party to invest time in the situation, ultimately putting you in control.
Kapitel 12
The Negotiator's Philosophy: Life as Ongoing Negotiation
Cohen's ultimate message transcends specific tactics and techniques. Negotiation isn't just something we do-it's a way of seeing the world and our place in it. Every interaction becomes an opportunity not just to get what we want, but to create solutions where everyone's needs are met.
The most powerful negotiators don't view life as a zero-sum game where their gain must come at someone else's expense. Instead, they recognize that by understanding others' true needs-not just their stated positions-they can craft solutions that satisfy everyone involved.
This perspective transforms negotiation from a potentially adversarial encounter into a collaborative process of discovery. It's not about manipulation or domination but about genuine problem-solving. When we approach life's challenges with this mindset, we not only achieve better outcomes but build stronger relationships in the process.
The skills of negotiation-listening actively, gathering information, understanding needs, building trust, managing time, exercising appropriate power-aren't just business tools but life skills that enhance every relationship and interaction. By mastering these skills, we gain not just material benefits but a deeper understanding of human nature and a greater capacity to navigate our complex social world.
In the end, negotiation isn't about getting the best refrigerator price or winning a corporate battle-it's about creating a life where we can effectively meet our needs while helping others meet theirs. It's about transforming "I win, you lose" into "we both win" whenever possible. And that might be the most valuable skill of all.
