Kapitel 4
Cultural Resistance: Education as Defiance
Despite Nazi oppression, Freedom maintained vibrant educational programs in the Warsaw Ghetto, including underground elementary and high schools serving 120 students. Thirteen dedicated teachers worked without basic supplies or permanent classrooms, moving locations frequently to avoid detection. They taught a comprehensive curriculum spanning Bible studies, mathematics, psychology, literature, and Jewish history. These "flying gymnasia" operated in basements, attics, and private apartments, with students studying in small groups of 8-10 to maintain secrecy. They even administered formal examinations and awarded unofficial diplomas, operating successfully for two years until the ghetto's liquidation. Many of these students later became active resistance fighters, their education providing both practical skills and moral fortitude.
Freedom prioritized children's welfare through multiple initiatives. They established six day care centers across different ghetto sectors, serving over 400 children daily. The organization systematically collected and distributed clothes, books, and medical supplies to fifteen orphanages housing more than 1,500 children. Their innovative "children's kitchen" program combined nutrition with education, providing daily meals to hundreds of street children while teaching them basic literacy and practical skills. This program became a model for similar initiatives in other ghettos.
The cultural resistance extended beyond traditional education. Freedom's children's choir, led by conductor Isaac Miron, performed secret concerts in cellars and courtyards, drawing audiences of thousands. Their repertoire included traditional Jewish songs, classical pieces, and newly composed resistance anthems. Dramatic groups staged plays in Yiddish and Polish, often incorporating coded messages of resistance and hope. These performances became crucial gathering points for maintaining community spirit and passing information.
Literary resistance formed another vital component. After the Nazis banned and burned Jewish books, Freedom established its own clandestine publishing operation, producing over thirty different works. These included historical anthologies documenting Jewish resistance throughout history, from the Maccabees to modern times. They published educational handbooks for teachers, resistance literature, and plays that celebrated Jewish culture. Their underground newspapers, printed in both Polish and Yiddish, reached thousands of readers, operating within a network of approximately 70 secret periodicals circulating in the ghetto. These publications shared news, preserved cultural memory, and maintained morale.
This multifaceted cultural resistance provided crucial psychological strength and spiritual sustenance. As survivor Rachel Auerbach later reflected, "We had to show that we were still human beings with dignity. Every book read, every lesson taught, every song sung was an act of defiance." Through these educational and cultural activities, the resistance maintained not just physical survival but the preservation of Jewish identity and values. Historian Emanuel Ringelblum termed this "the spiritual armor" that helped Jews endure the unendurable, creating a legacy of resilience that transcended the immediate circumstances of the ghetto.
Kapitel 5
From Spirit to Action: The Birth of Armed Resistance
In December 1941, Tosia Altman arrived in snow-covered Vilna on a critical mission. The Young Guard leader with her distinctive blonde locks had spent two years traveling throughout Nazi-occupied Poland establishing resistance networks. As mass deportations began in Warsaw, the reality of the "Final Solution" became impossible to ignore.
After 52,000 Jews were deported, Freedom members established the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB) on July 28, 1942. With only two pistols, they planned Jewish resistance across Poland using female couriers. Zivia, the only elected woman leader, learned firearms while also cooking and maintaining morale. Other women like Tosia, Frumka and Leah were sent to the Aryan side to forge ties and procure weapons.
The ZOB's first missions included posting warnings about Treblinka, burning warehouses of looted goods, and attempting to assassinate the Jewish police chief. Zivia climbed walls to set fires, rejoicing as "flames swept into a great blaze... the symbol of Jewish armed resistance we had yearned for."
Women became crucial weapons smugglers. Tosia transported guns hidden in boxes of nails, Frumka concealed weapons under potatoes, and Vladka eventually smuggled dynamite. After losing leaders and weapons in raids, the demoralized group considered mass suicide, but Antek convinced them to continue fighting: "Both in our fight and in our death, we wished to save the honor of the Jewish people."
Meanwhile, in August 1942, Renia learned the complex art of false identification. The best fake IDs were real ones from deceased persons, with photographs and fingerprints replaced. Second best were real papers with false names, requiring stolen forms and stamps. Most Jews used complete fabrications, where forgers invented identities matching the person's appearance and background.
Renia's journey continued through unknown villages, constantly fearing exposure. Finding temporary shelter with a sympathetic farmer, she eventually found work as a housekeeper for the half-German Hollander family, who seemed to suspect but accept her Jewish identity. To maintain her Catholic disguise, Renia attended church, meticulously mimicking others' movements during Mass-"I hadn't even known that I was such a good actor."
Kapitel 6
The Courier Girls: Women on the Frontlines
In May 1943, Renia joined the ranks of the kashariyot (Hebrew for "connectors")-the female couriers who became the resistance's lifelines. Initially traveling between ghettos conducting seminars and delivering publications, these couriers evolved into "human radios" smuggling news, fake IDs, money, and eventually weapons.
Most connectors had to be female. Jewish women lacked the obvious bodily marker of circumcision, could travel during daytime without suspicion, and weren't expected to be operatives. Their feminine wiles-flirtatious smiles, displays of elegance, or feigned naivete-often disarmed Nazis. Women's handbags and baskets became perfect weapons caches.
Only women who didn't look "semitic" were selected-those with light hair and blue, green or gray eyes. They dyed their hair, adopted Polish hairstyles, dressed in middle-class Polish clothes, and learned Polish gestures and demeanor. They memorized Catholic prayers, celebrated patron saint days, and replaced Jewish expressions with Polish ones.
The psychological burden was immense. They maintained fake smiles and laughed loudly while carrying bullets in jam jars. As Chasia Bielicka described it: "We were actors in a play that had no intermission... Nonstop actresses." They faced constant threats from blackmailers and needed extraordinary courage for every mission.
Bela Hazan, a master courier, even used her position at the Gestapo office to aid the resistance. After her Nazi boss helped her obtain rare train passes, Bela traveled to meet with comrades. Near the ghetto gate, she encountered Lonka Kozibrodska, another legendary courier with long blonde braids "arranged like a halo." Unlike street-smart Bela, Lonka was educated, worldly, and fluent in eight languages.
For Christmas 1941, Bela hosted fellow couriers Tema Schneiderman and Lonka at her apartment. The three attended a Gestapo holiday party, posing for what would become an iconic photograph of the courier girls-a dangerous game of deception played at the highest stakes.
Kapitel 7
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: Women in Combat
On April 18, 1943, the night before Passover, Zivia sat with her comrades when they learned Germans would attack the ghetto at dawn. The ZOB had transformed since January's "mini uprising"-they'd become the effective government of the ghetto, clearing out collaborators, collecting funds, and preparing strategically for battle.
The resistance built an impressive arsenal through various means-buying weapons from Poles and German soldiers, making primitive but effective bombs from water pipes filled with explosives and nails, and creating Molotov cocktails from thin glass bottles filled with gasoline and kerosene. They planted mines at ghetto entrance points and organized twenty-two fighting groups (about 500 fighters, one-third women) positioned strategically throughout the ghetto.
When 2,000 Nazi soldiers with tanks and machine guns marched confidently into the ghetto on Passover morning, the Jews detonated mines under the main street, sending severed limbs flying. Fighters rained down grenades and Molotov cocktails from strategic positions in buildings, leaving pools of German blood in the streets. The Jews were stunned by their own success-they'd blocked the Nazi advance with no casualties among their fighters.
That night, makeshift Passover seders were held in bunkers of the German-free ghetto. But the following days grew difficult as German artillery bombarded them constantly. Zivia maintained authority, conducting dangerous nighttime reconnaissance missions. In one medical bunker she visited, fighters celebrated their victories-hitting tanks, setting Nazis aflame, and hearing Polish radio announce: "The Jews of the ghetto are fighting with unparalleled courage."
Nazi commander Jurgen Stroop later described Jewish female fighters as "not human, perhaps devils or goddesses" who fought with extraordinary fierceness. He noted their calm demeanor, nimbleness "like circus performers," and ability to fire pistols in both hands simultaneously. After suffering losses from female fighters, Stroop gave orders to kill them from a distance rather than taking them prisoner.
When the ghetto finally fell, Zivia escaped through Warsaw's sewage system-a harrowing journey through neck-high excrement and narrow passages while carrying injured comrades. When she finally reached safety in Lomianki Forest, she allowed herself to weep for the first time in years, overwhelmed by survival, loss, and the fresh spring air after years in the ghetto.
Kapitel 8
Forest Fighters: Women in the Partisan Movement
For Jewish women, joining partisan brigades was extremely difficult. Most partisan groups rejected Jews outright and considered women useful only for cooking, cleaning, and nursing. Despite this, about thirty thousand Jews enrolled in partisan detachments, with women comprising 10 percent.
The journey was perilous-women risked being recognized as Jews, killed by civilians, shot by suspicious partisans, or attacked by bandits. Many were sexually exploited, referred to as "whores" and forced to trade sex for protection. A "sexual/defense economy" developed where women paired with men for safety.
Some exceptional Jewish women broke these patterns. Faye Schulman, a photographer who escaped after her family was killed, joined partisans as a nurse performing open-air surgeries, while insisting on participating in combat missions. She kept her camera buried in the forest and her gun became "her best friend."
In Vilna, the United Partisan Organization (FPO) included many women fighters like Ruzka Korczak and Vitka Kempner. These close friends shared a bed in the ghetto with their leader Abba Kovner, walking "arm in arm in arm" down ghetto streets, stirring rumors while secretly amassing weapons and planning resistance.
In July 1943, Vitka led a groundbreaking mission that Abba called his "declaration of love." After two weeks of reconnaissance, slipping in and out of the ghetto to study train tracks and evading Nazi patrols with remarkable "icy calm," she led three comrades over rooftops carrying pistols, grenades, and a homemade bomb. They attached the device to the tracks and hid in the forest.
When the train approached, it derailed in a blazing orange explosion. Vitka ran alongside, lobbing additional grenades. This was the first such act of sabotage in all of occupied Europe, killing over two hundred German soldiers. When Nazis killed sixty peasants in retribution, Vitka maintained: "I knew it was not me killing these people-it was the Germans."
Throughout the winter of 1943-44, Jewish partisans continued their sabotage efforts, destroying fifty-one trains, hundreds of trucks, and dozens of bridges. Vitka commanded her own scouting corps, while Ruzka became a patrol unit commander after proving herself on a dangerous sabotage mission where she refused to turn back even after falling into freezing water: "You will have to put a bullet in my head to keep me from this mission."
Kapitel 9
The Final Stand: From Capture to Liberation
By 1944, many resistance fighters had been captured. Renia herself was arrested at a border crossing when guards discovered her forged documents. Despite brutal interrogation, Renia remained defiant, refusing to break even as guards beat her, dragged her by her hair, and threatened torture.
In Auschwitz, resistance flourished beneath the surface. Anna Heilman, just fourteen, worked at the Union Factory producing artillery shell detonators. Having witnessed the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, Anna eagerly joined the Auschwitz resistance. Women collected matches, gasoline and tools, organizing secretly with only block leaders maintaining contact.
Using an elaborate system, Anna's sister Esther wrapped bits of gunpowder in cloth and hid them in garbage, which Anna collected and smuggled under her dress. A network of about thirty Jewish women participated in this dangerous operation, stealing usable powder while substituting waste powder in their products.
On October 7, 1944, the Jewish underground attacked SS guards with improvised weapons, blew up a crematorium, and even threw a particularly sadistic Nazi into the oven alive. They cut through barbed wire and fled, but the Nazis shot all three hundred rebels.
After months in prison, Renia received unexpected news-instead of being sent to Auschwitz, she was assigned to work in the police kitchen. This reprieve gave her new strength as she worked from 4 a.m. to 4 p.m. daily. A sympathetic German gendarme treated her kindly, and Renia risked writing a coded letter to her comrades in Warsaw, which he agreed to mail.
Renia's escape unfolded with heart-stopping tension. After swapping clothes with another prisoner, she joined a work group carrying bricks while battling extreme weakness. When her sister Sarah appeared, Renia distracted the head guard with liquor and cigarettes. In a breathless moment, the sisters changed Renia's clothes and fled, scaling a barbed wire fence. Though Renia repeatedly collapsed from exhaustion, Sarah's desperate pleas kept her moving through eight grueling miles.
With Chajka Klinger and six others, she eventually journeyed by train and then on foot through the snow-covered Tatra Mountains. Despite weakness, cold, and border patrols, they trekked for six grueling hours, finally crossing into Slovakia-her most incredible crossing yet. On March 6, 1944, nineteen-year-old Renia Kukielka arrived in Haifa, Palestine.
Kapitel 10
The Light After Darkness: Survival and Legacy
Arriving in Palestine, Renia experienced both elation and disorientation. After rehabilitation at a sanatorium where she continued writing her memoirs, she settled at Kibbutz Dafna with comrade Chawka, finding comfort among fellow kibbutzniks. Yet despite finally reaching her homeland, she remained haunted by trauma and lost loved ones, confessing, "We feel like we're smaller and weaker than the people around us. Like we don't have the same right to life as they do."
For survivors, freedom brought profound challenges. Without family networks or normal development, many struggled with identity and purpose. Guilt plagued many, including Zivia who felt empty when Soviet tanks liberated Warsaw-"the saddest day of her life" as her world officially ceased to exist.
After settling in Israel, Zivia and Antek founded the Ghetto Fighters' House kibbutz, composed mainly of survivors who worked to build productive lives despite their trauma. Zivia remained principled and restrained-tight with money, fiercely against German reconciliation, and focused on practical action rather than dwelling on problems. "Give yourself a slap on the ass!" was her motto.
Not everyone survived surviving. Chajka Klinger, though she made it to Palestine on the same train as Renia, struggled with depression and conflict with The Young Guard, who heavily edited her diaries to remove criticism. Despite starting a family with Benito on Kibbutz Ha'Ogen, Chajka battled mental illness and found no outlet for her intellectual talents. After several hospitalizations and deepening depression, Chajka hung herself in April 1958, on the fifteenth anniversary of the Warsaw ghetto uprising.
Renia embraced renewal, adopting the motto "It happened, and it passed." She married Akiva Herscovitch, moved to Haifa, and had two children-Yakov (named after her murdered brother) and Leah (named after her mother). Though she rarely spoke about the Holocaust with her new family, filling their home instead with books, music, parties and joy, her children sensed the darkness of her past.
Many of these female fighters lived remarkably long lives-Hela to ninety-six, Vladka to ninety, Chasia to ninety-one, and Vitka to ninety-two. Renia remained vibrant and youthful well into her eighties, bewildering her family with her optimism despite her experiences. She passed away in 2014, nearly ninety years after her birth, surrounded by the family she had cultivated "from nothing, the new branches from a decapitated tree."
The stories of Jewish women resisters faded from history for numerous reasons. Many fighters didn't survive to tell their tales, while competing political factions each claimed credit for resistance activities. Gender further erased women's contributions, as female survivors often documented others' heroism rather than their own.
Yet their legacy lives on through their descendants-an estimated twenty-five thousand of them. As third-generation descendants seek to learn about their grandparents' experiences, they find their elders increasingly willing to share their stories, preserving the legacy of these remarkable women who fought against overwhelming odds. Through their courage and sacrifice, they fulfilled the defiant promise of "The Partisan Song": "Never say the final journey is at hand."
